Reconsidering the Role of Absentee Herd Owners: A View from Mongolia

Since the privatization of livestock in 1992, rates of absentee ownership of livestock have increased sharply in Mongolia. Unlike other documented instances of absentee herding in pastoral societies, absentee herd ownership has few detrimental ecological or social impacts in Mongolia. Rather, the relationship between absentee herd owners and herders may be viewed as a revitalized institution, with links to customary patterns of urban-rural exchange, emerging to meet the needs of both herders and town-dwellers during the transition from a socialist planned economy to a free market economy. Absentee herding in Mongolia differs from absentee and contract herding accounts from Africa and the Middle East in its continuing emphasis on subsistence rather than speculative investment and accumulation. Other important distinctions include: (1) absentee owners and herders are usually kin or friends; (2) herders tend their own private herds in addition to absenteeowned animals;(3)few ethnic, caste, or class differences existbetween herders and absentee herd owners; and (4) herders from all wealth strata tend absentee-owned animals. Policies to restrict or regulate absentee livestock ownership must be carefully considered in the Mongolian context, making clear distinctions between informal, mutually beneficial subsistence-driven arrangements among kin and friends, and more formal investment-driven contracts between businesses or investors and herders.     

牧民对草地生态补偿政策的满意度实证研究

实施草地生态补偿政策是恢复退化草地、建设生态安全屏障、提高牧民生活水平,促进牧区社会经济发展的重要手段。研究牧民对草地生态补偿政策的满意度及其影响因素,对完善我国草地生态补偿政策,提高补偿绩效具有重要意义。选取甘肃牧区中甘南、肃南和天祝三地500户牧民作为样本数据,结合问卷调查与深度访谈,构建有序Logit模型,从牧民一般社会经济特征、对其居住与放牧地区生态环境评估,以及对生活满意度评估三方面入手研究了牧民对草地生态补偿政策实施的满意度及其影响因素。结果表明,影响牧民对补偿政策满意度的显著因素包括牧民受教育水平、牲畜养殖数量与体重变化情况、补偿金额、牧民对环境与经济重要性的评估,以及对社会福利满意度的主观评价。从政策角度看,提高牧民受教育水平,改变牧民传统放牧观念;改善贫困牧民生活水平,提高牧民社会福利;优化补偿方式,构建补偿政策监管体系,有利于草地生态补偿政策的进一步完善与有效实施。     

内蒙古荒漠草原牧户对气候变化的感知和适应

荒漠草原是气候变化影响的脆弱和敏感地区.荒漠草原的牧户主要依赖天然草原维持生计,正面临着严峻的气候变化挑战.本文采用问卷调查的实证分析方法,在获取内蒙古苏尼特右旗荒漠草原牧户对气候变化和极端气候事件感知和适应的第一手资料基础上,分析了荒漠草原牧户对气候变化趋势和极端气候事件感知和适应的现状与行为特征.结果表明:在降水稀少、气象灾害频繁发生的荒漠草原,干旱是影响范围最广、影响程度最深、发生频率最高的极端气候事件;牧户不仅对干旱的敏感度远高于其他极端气候事件,而且对大风、沙尘暴和大雪等极端气候事件的深刻感知伴随着对干旱的感知而产生;相对于长期气候变化的感知,牧户对短期气候变化趋势的感知更深刻、准确,并主要依据近10年气候变化的感知结果来判断较长期气候变化的总体趋势;牧户认为,气候变化在很大程度上影响了牲畜健康和草场产量,但牧户应对气候变化的行为相对单一,且多为自发性被动适应,缺乏行之有效的主动适应.     

Gender participation in sheep and goat farming in Najran,Southern Saudi Arabia

Sheep and goat farming is a major source of income in the rural areas of Al-Wadiah in Najran region of Southern Saudi Arabia. The study aims to identify the factors and parameters that influence gender participation in sheep and goat farming. Data were collected by interviewing 167 high school students, including 70 male and 97 female students, in Al-Wadiah, by using the simple random sampling technique. Data were statistically analyzed to establish the relationship between gender and participation in sheep and goat farming. The study revealed significant differences between the two genders, for instance, male herders were more experienced, received more benefits, showed greater interest in discussions on topics related to sheep and goat farming, followed information from TV and radio, and received more services offered by veterinary clinics, which proved more beneficial for them. On the other hand, female herders received fewer services, and the veterinary clinics proved less beneficial for them. However, the correlation between the participation of both genders in sheep and goats management was non-significant toward the statement “feeling ashamed of participating in sheep and goat farming.” Generally, sheep and goat rearing proves more beneficial for male participants than female participants, owing to their greater experience and interest in livestock farming. Moreover, they receive more benefits from TV, radio and veterinary clinics to maintain better health of their livestock. Both male and female herders contribute equally to sheep and goat farming by limiting the time spent on their daily routine. This study would enable policymakers and planners to develop more strategies and extension education programs to overcome the identified barriers and improve the livelihood of herders through their enhanced participation in remote areas.     

祁连山国家公园青海片区人兽冲突现状与牧民态度认知研究

在祁连山国家公园,人类与野生动物冲突已经成为一个普遍的问题。了解国家公园内牧民对肇事野生动物的态度,为探究野生动物肇事规律、针对肇事动物制定防控措施以及保护国家公园生态系统原真性、促进牧民与野生动物和谐相处具有重要的参考意义。通过实地走访调查了2014—2016年祁连山国家公园青海片区牧民与野生动物之间的冲突和牧民对于野生动物的态度认知。调查分析发现:11月—次年3月是祁连县野生动物肇事高峰期,狼和雪豹是捕食家畜的主要动物;狼被牧民认为是肇事最严重的动物,而实际数据表明雪豹的肇事频次却要高于狼,这与两种动物生活习性以及保护等级有关,加之牧民对雪豹肇事的容忍度更高;天峻县相比祁连县,除了狼以外其棕熊肇事频次较高,牧民认为应当大力控制狼和棕熊的种群数量,因为棕熊除了捕食家畜,更会伤害牧民和破坏房屋,威胁到牧民的生活,雪豹则需要进一步保护;牧民一般会选择使用牧羊犬和强化圈舍来防止野生动物捕食家畜;羊是祁连山国家公园青海片区牧民主要经济收入,牧民对狼吃食羊无法容忍,棕熊入户直接掠食伤人现象目前频次不高,但需提前防范。     

Livestock Diversification: an Adaptive Strategy to Climate and Rangeland Ecosystem Changes in Southern Ethiopia

Pastoral cattle production in southern Ethiopia is becoming increasingly vulnerable to impacts of climate variability and rangeland resource degradation, giving rise to livestock diversification. Using a household (n?=?242) survey among herders, the relative functions, adaptability and vulnerability of four livestock species and factors influencing livestock diversification were analyzed. The stated major drivers of livestock diversification were recurrent droughts, bush encroachment, increased vulnerability of cattle and growing demand for adaptive species. Different livestock species are kept to fulfill various livelihood priorities with subsistence objectives outweighing production goals of the herders. Adaptability and vulnerability analyses of the livestock species showed camels and cattle to be the most and least adaptable species, respectively. Livestock species diversification varied significantly with family size and per capita holding of cattle, implicating the influence of labor and economic factors on adoptions. Multispecies herding emerged as the dominant local adaptation strategy, likely because it enhances resilience of households to climate and rangeland ecosystem changes by broadening the set of existing strategies.     

Pastoralist Decision-Making on the Tibetan Plateau

Despite a growing body of research about rangeland degradation and the effects of policies implemented to address it on the Tibetan Plateau, little in-depth research has been conducted on how pastoralists make decisions. Based on qualitative research in Gouli Township, Qinghai province, China, we analyze the context in which Tibetan herders make decisions, and their decisions about livestock and pastures. We refute three fundamental assumptions upon which current policy is premised: that pastoralists aim to increase livestock numbers without limit; that, blindly following tradition, they do not actively manage livestock and rangelands; and that they lack environmental knowledge. We demonstrate that pastoralists carefully assess limits to livestock holdings based on land and labor availability; that they increasingly manage their livestock and rangelands through contracting; and that herding knowledge is a form of embodied practical skill. We further discuss points of convergence and contradiction between herders’ observations and results of a vegetation analysis.     

Managing Variability: Herding Strategies in Communal Rangelands of Semiarid Namaqualand, South Africa

Herd mobility is a tool for managing environmental variability in African pastoral systems. This study examines the monthly mobility patterns of 24 herds over six years in the 20,000 ha communal area of Paulshoek, Namaqualand, and assesses the social, economic, and ecological factors affecting the livestock movement of individual herds and all herds combined. When the mobility pattern of all herds was considered, no seasonal or between-year differences in response to rainfall were evident. An analysis of individual herd mobility patterns showed that half of the herds were relatively sedentary over the study period while the other half were regularly mobile. Although herders used mobility to manage their herds in the unpredictable semiarid environment, their daily decisions were often made in response to their social, economic, or personal situations. There was no significant difference in livestock production between herding strategies, but sedentary herders had a greater localized impact on the rangeland than mobile herders. Our analysis suggests that non-environmental factors play a significant role in herd mobility and may consequently affect the efficiency of livestock production and environmental management.     

Factors shaping the tolerance of local Tibetan herders toward snow leopards

Snow leopards (Panthera uncia) have long co-existed with livestock herding people across Asia’s high mountains. Multiple use landscapes however imply potential competition for shared resources, livestock predation, and the risk of retaliatory killing of predators. Community-based conservation is a central pillar for supporting people’s livelihoods and safeguarding predators and their habitat. Based on the theory of planned behavior, we examined the factors that shape herders’ tolerance of snow leopards. Our questionnaire-based study was conducted in the Sanjiangyuan Region, China, encompassing four communities with varying livelihoods, experiences with livestock depredation and levels of exposure to community conservation interventions. Our results showed that respondents generally held positive views towards snow leopards, although women tended to have relatively more negative views towards snow leopards compared with men. Current household income was largely dependent on caterpillar fungus rather than livestock. Social norms around religion and the role of community leaders in our study area seemed to be the main determinants of the generally benign association of people with wildlife, overshadowing potential influences of community-based conservation interventions. Our work suggests that conservations programs will be aided through collaborations with communities and religious institutions, and that conservationists must proactively engage with women as significant actors in conservation.     

Fortified Bomas and Vigilant Herding are Perceived to Reduce Livestock Depredation by Large Carnivores in the Tarangire-Simanjiro Ecosystem,Tanzania

Human-carnivore conflict (HCC) is an increasingly important issue in Tanzania, especially where humans live adjacent to protected areas (PAs). We conducted semi-structured interviews (n = 300) to compile information on livestock husbandry practices and evaluate perceptions about the effectiveness of these methods in the Tarangire-Simanjiro ecosystem of northern Tanzania. Fortified bomas were perceived to be very effective (97.7%) in reducing nighttime depredations, while adult herders were perceived to be effective (71%) in reducing daytime depredations. Domestic dogs were perceived to be more effective at night, but an equal number of respondents found them to be effective during herding as those who found them to be not effective. Our results also show that boma type had a significant effect on livestock depredation. We recommend the use of fortified bomas as a long-term solution to prevent nocturnal livestock loss and adult herders for livestock during the day.     

Genetic defects or generative prototypes? Competing models for livestock improvement in southern Bolivia

Following neo-liberal 'structural adjustments' in Bolivia, peasant llama-herders are expected to become entrepreneurs and their animal products to compete in global markets. To facilitate the entry of llama produce into global trade, scientifically trained experts working for NGOs give herders 'capacity-building' courses in livestock management and organize livestock shows to teach them about animal conformation. This article examines negotiations and accommodations between indigenous knowledge and science, and in particular focuses upon competing claims to knowledge about herd management and animal improvement. While experts look to improve animals from without – through hybridization with animals from other areas, which also constitutes exchanges in genetic capital – herders expect improvement to come from within – placing emphasis on the unity of their herds as reproductive groups and regarding animals condemned as 'defective' by experts as generative prototypes that indicate the herds' fertility.     

Efficacy of Integrating Herder Knowledge and Ecological Methods for Monitoring Rangeland Degradation in Northern Kenya

The world-wide debate on land degradation in arid lands, usually linked to local land use practices, does not reflect methodological advancements in terms of assessments and monitoring that integrate local communities’ knowledge with ecological methods. In this paper, we evaluated the efficacy of three different methods related to herder assessments and monitoring of land degradation; herder knowledge and ecological methods of assessing impacts of livestock grazing along gradients of land use from settlement and joint monitoring of selected marked transects to understand long-term vegetation changes in southwestern Marsabit northern Kenya. The performance of each method was carefully evaluated and interpreted in terms of the indicators used by herders and ecologists. Herder interpretations were then related to ecologists’ empirical analysis of land degradation. The Rendille nomads have a complex understanding of land degradation which combines environmental and livestock productivity indicators, compared to conventional scientific approaches that use plant-based indicators alone. According to the herders, the grazing preference of various livestock species (e.g., grazers versus browsers) influences perceptions of land degradation, suggesting degradation is a relative term. The herders distinguished short-term changes in vegetation cover from long-term changes associated with over-exploitation. They attributed current environmental degradation around pastoral camps, which shift land use between the alternating wet and dry seasons, to year-round grazing. We deduced from long-term observation that herders interpret vegetation changes in terms of rainfall variability, utilitarian values and intensification of land use. Long-term empirical data (23 years) from repeated sampling corroborated herder interpretations. Land degradation was mostly expressed in terms of declines in woody plant species, while spatial and temporal dynamics of herbaceous species reflected the effects of seasonality. The efficacy of the three methods were inferred using explanatory strengths of ecological theory; insightfulness of the methods for describing land degradation and the likelihood of using the methods for promoting local community participation in the implementation of the UN Convention on Combating Desertification (CCD) and the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD).     

Herders' Perceptions, Practice, and Problems of Night Grazing in the Sahel: Case Studies from Niger

A survey was conducted from February to June of 1997 among livestock herders in two villages of Niger, Kodey and Toukounous, on their perceptions, practice, and problems of night grazing. Cattle and sheep were the species that were taken out for night grazing by the herders. Small herd size and labor constraints were mentioned as the principal reasons for not practicing night grazing. Major benefits of night grazing included good body condition, herd growth, increased milk production, prevention of diseases, and reduction in herd mortality. Insecurity, difficulty in staying awake at night, labor constraints, and damage to crops by animals were given as problems of night grazing. According to the herders, grazing time (duration) during the day and night was shorter in the wet season than in the dry season. In the wet season animals were herded (followed and closely supervised by herders), whereas in the dry season, animals were mostly left to range freely in both villages. In general, children herded the animals during the day, while adults were responsible for night-time herding. Herders' perceptions on night grazing as regards animal production parameters such as weight development, water consumption, fecal output and feeding behavior are consistent with available experimental results. Therefore, future technical research needs to recognize the constraints faced by herders and determine how to overcome them to improve technical and economic efficiency.     

祁连山国家公园牧民对雪豹(Panthera Unica)保护的态度认知及其影响因素

祁连山地区是中国乃至全球雪豹(Panthera Unica)分布最集中、种群密度最高的地区之一，该地区的雪豹科学保护对于全球雪豹种群具有重要意义。了解祁连山国家公园牧民对雪豹保护的态度认知、探究影响牧民对雪豹保护态度的主要因素，对于保护国家公园生态系统的原真性、促进人与野生动物和谐共处具有重要意义。基于半结构式访谈对祁连山国家公园牧民进行了随机抽样调查，结果表明：(1)受访者认为狼(n=34, 91.89%)和雪豹(n=16, 43.24%)是最重要的两种致害野生动物；(2)所有受访者对雪豹保护均持积极态度；(3)受访者认为野生动物捕杀(n=14, 50.00%)和草场退化(n=9, 32.14%)是家畜面临的两大威胁因素；(4)“雪豹捕杀家畜”和“为家畜购买商业保险”是影响牧民对雪豹保护态度的关键因素(P<0.05)。为促进人与野生动物长期共存，需要各级政府以国家公园体制建设为契机，进一步加强科学研究，制定更加科学合理的野生动物保护与管理措施。     

West African Cattle Farmers’ Perception of Tick-Borne Diseases

Worldwide, cattle production is struggling to face the negative impacts caused by ticks and Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus is one of the most harmful ticks for livestock. Most of the people in West Africa depend on cattle farming and subsistence agriculture. The presence of ticks on cattle is a major problem faced by smallholder farmers who fight for their livelihood. National and regional tick control programs could assist these rural communities in protecting their livelihoods against ticks and tick-borne diseases, but only if they take into account the targeted herders and their perception on cattle management and tick control. This paper aims to provide a better insight in the socio-economic characteristics of Beninese cattle farmers, and their perception on tick burden, as well as to document common tick control strategies. Different tick species and their seasonality are well understood by cattle herders. For tick control, many still use manual tick removal, especially in the north of the country. The high cost of acaricides, the lack of financial means of African farmers, and of the local stockbreeders in particular, limits the use of acaricides in livestock breeding in Benin. While aiming to increase the meat or milk production of their animals, stockbreeders who can afford it sometimes turn to an abusive use of acaricides, which might in time lead to an increase in tick resistance. This study remains one of the rare studies to report extensively on the perceptions of West African cattle herders.     

牧民对草地可持续利用的生态认知水平及其影响因素——以黄河源区5个县为例

牧民对草地可持续利用认知水平很大程度上影响了当地土地的利用状况,进而影响牧民保护草地行为的产生。基于黄河源区（玛多、玛沁、班玛、达日、甘德）的入户调查数据,在分析牧民生计方式和草地退化认知特征的基础上,运用Tobit模型探究影响牧民对草地退化生态认知的主要因素。研究结果表明：（1）黄河源区88%的牧民认为近5年草地出现了不同程度的退化,与学术界普遍认同的观点相一致;（2）联户放牧、子女受教育程度、新技术培训、牲畜养殖规模等对牧民关于草地退化的认知有正向引导作用;（3）户年均收入、国家草原奖补对牧民关于草地退化的认知有负向作用。为有效解决黄河源区牧民对草地的严重依赖性和源区内产业结构单一的问题,应（1）加强牧民专业技能培训、提升草原牧民整体文化水平;（2）鼓励中小牧民参与联户经营;（3）优化牧户生计方式,改善生计策略,减小牧民对草地的依赖程度,实现社会-生态系统的可持续发展。     

Livestock Predation—Insights From Problem Animal Control Registers in Botswana

Abstract: Problem Animal Control Registers, where farmers report livestock losses due to predators as a prerequisite for financial compensation, allow quantifying the human-predator conflict. We analyzed such registers from the Kweneng District of Botswana to assess the impact of native predators on livestock over 3 years. Leopards (Panthera pardus), lions (Panthera leo), wild dogs (Lycaon pictus), brown hyenas (Hyaena brunnea), and cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) altogether claimed 2,272 head of livestock. During 2002, the year with the highest impact, the number of animals reported depredated (954) represented 0.34% of the livestock in the district. Leopards and lions caused 64% of the losses. Leopard livestock predation mainly affected calves and was consistent over the district and over time. In contrast, lion predation concentrated on adult cattle, was characterized by local hot spots close to reserve borders, decreased with increasing distance to a reserve, and increased during 2002, an unusually dry year. Interviews with 60 farmers and herders within 30 km of Khutse and Central Kalahari Game Reserves revealed an annual loss of 2.2% of their livestock to predators. Here, small farms (max. 100 domestic animals) suffered relatively higher losses than large, commercial farms, not only due to predation (small farms: 11.7%; large farms: 1.0%) but also from other causes (small: 12.6%; large: 2.8%), even though herders on large farms guarded 5 times more livestock per person than those on small farms. To reduce livestock predation in most of the district where lions are absent, we recommend maternity corrals for pregnant females and calves to better protect vulnerable calves during day and night. In areas close to a reserve where lions roam, herders' incentives to keep all livestock protected in a corral at night have to be enhanced because, according to the registers, only 3 predation cases were reported to have happened inside a corral.     

Exploring the role of transhumance drove roads on the conservation of ant diversity in Mediterranean agroecosystems

Drove roads are a major feature of Mediterranean countries, where this livestock management system has been practiced for centuries. In Spain, many drove roads have become completely or partially abandoned by herders, and transformed for other land uses. Yet, some major drove roads continue to be used for the passage of livestock, and might exert important effects on the conservation of biodiversity and ecosystem functions, particularly in highly transformed agricultural landscapes. In this study, we compare ant taxonomic and functional diversity on a drove road that is still used by transhumant livestock (the Conquense Drove Road) versus an abandoned road (the Murciana Drove Road). Ant species richness per trap and ant richness per sample unit were significantly higher on the used drove road compared to the abandoned drove road. The used drove road also had a positive edge effect on ant species diversity in adjacent croplands (both herbaceous crops and vineyards). Ant functional diversity was also higher on the used drove road. These results draw attention to the role of drove roads as ecologically unique systems and reservoirs of biodiversity, particularly within intensive agricultural landscapes. These effects, however, are largely dependent on maintaining livestock use.     

Influencing factors of the grassland ecological compensation policy to herdsmen's behavioral response: An empirical study in Hexi corridor

Ecological protection of grassland is an important part of the construction of ecological civilization in China. Grassland ecological compensation and reward policy is an important policy for grassland ecological protection in China. As the main participants in the grassland ecological compensation and reward policy, herders' behavioral response largely affects the effect of policy implementation. In this study, 550 herders in two regions with different compensation standards were selected as samples, and the comparative analysis of herdsmen's response to policy behavior and influence factors was carried out. The results showed that the grassland area owned by herders, ethnic group and perception of policies were important factors to affect the response of herdsmen's behavior in the two regions, but larger differences existed in the two regions. The grassland area and family size owned by herders are important factors that affect the response of herdsmen's behavior in Qinghai-Tibet Plateau; However, the ethnic group, the understanding of policy and family income are the important factors in the western desert area.     

Analyzing Herder Adaptive Capacity to Climate Change: A Case Study from an Ecologically Fragile Area in Inner Mongolia,People’s Republic of China

Based on 224 face-to-face household surveys in an ecologically fragile grazing area in China’s Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, this study analyzes herder (pastoralist) adaptive capacity for coping with climate change. The Composite Indicator Framework Method and Entropy Weighting Method were applied to calculate each herder’s Adaptive Capacity Index (ACI) based on 16 indicators from seven determinants of adaptive willingness and adaptive capital. Results show that herders have an average ACI value of 0.40. Classifying herders into three groups of relatively high, medium, and low ACI values, we find that financial capital and social capital are the most significant determinants of herder adaptive capacity. Improving financial services and building herder social capital would be the most effective ways of enhancing adaptive capacity for coping with climate change. The methods and indicators developed can be generalized to other similar areas to facilitate better policy interventions for reducing poverty and improving rangeland management.