猕猴脑胱天蛋白酶-3活化及其靶蛋白的体外研究

凋亡的主要生化过程包括胱天蛋白酶的活化及其对细胞内蛋白质的选择性切割.在已知的胱天蛋白酶中,可被多种凋亡刺激信号激活的胱天蛋白酶-3备受注目.为进一步揭示灵长类动物神经组织中未知的胱天蛋白酶-3靶蛋白,采用成年猕猴脑组织粗提物作为无细胞体系,通过加入granzyme B引发凋亡途径的部分反应,如胱天蛋白酶-3的活化及随后发生的蛋白质水解.经蛋白质印迹分析发现,与granzyme B共孵育后,猕猴脑胱天蛋白酶-3以两步方式从酶原转化为活性酶.对猕猴脑组织自身蛋白质的进一步分析显示,多聚ADP-核糖聚合酶(PARP)被水解为长85 ku的片段,此片段提示胱天蛋白酶-3的特异切割活性.此外,神经元凋亡抑制蛋白(NAIP)也被切割,产生长约40 ku的小片段,但是它的出现不被胱天蛋白酶-3特异性抑制剂Ac-DEVD-CHO阻断,因此可能是granzyme B直接作用于NAIP所致.以上结果提示,凋亡相关酶切反应可在成年猕猴脑组织提取物中得到重现;NAIP可能是granzyme B而非胱天蛋白酶-3的作用靶点.     

颗粒酶B和胱天蛋白酶-3对肌动蛋白水解作用的体外研究(英)

已知凋亡过程的基本变化之一是细胞骨架的异常,后者在某种程度上决定凋亡细胞的形态学特征.为揭示凋亡相关蛋白酶——颗粒酶B和胱天蛋白酶-3对胞浆型肌动蛋白的水解作用,采用成年猕猴脑组织粗提物作为无细胞体系,以外源性颗粒酶B触发凋亡途径的终末反应. 经一系列免疫印迹分析发现: 孵育12 h方见β-肌动蛋白被剪切,产生41 ku和15 ku水解片段,并证明该水解反应为颗粒酶B依赖;颗粒酶B活化的内源性胱天蛋白酶-3和重组胱天蛋白酶-3均不能水解脑提取物中的β-肌动蛋白,尽管胱天蛋白酶-3可作用于纯化的肌动蛋白,产生15 ku片段. 以上结果提示,内源性β-肌动蛋白对凋亡相关蛋白酶,尤其胱天蛋白酶-3不敏感,这可能与该蛋白质的空间结构特征或脑组织中存在的某种蛋白酶抑制因子有关.     

颗粒酶B和胱天蛋白酶-3对肌动蛋白水解作用的体外研究

已知凋亡过程的基本变化之一是细胞骨架的异常,后者在某种程度上决定凋亡细胞的形态学特征.为揭示凋亡相关蛋白酶--颗粒酶B和胱天蛋白酶-3对胞浆型肌动蛋白的水解作用,采用成年猕猴脑组织粗提物作为无细胞体系,以外源性颗粒酶B触发凋亡途径的终末反应.经一系列免疫印迹分析发现:孵育12 h方见β-肌动蛋白被剪切,产生41 ku和15 ku水解片段,并证明该水解反应为颗粒酶B依赖;颗粒酶B活化的内源性胱天蛋白酶-3和重组胱天蛋白酶-3均不能水解脑提取物中的β-肌动蛋白,尽管胱天蛋白酶-3可作用于纯化的肌动蛋白,产生15 ku片段.以上结果提示,内源性β-肌动蛋白对凋亡相关蛋白酶,尤其胱天蛋白酶-3不敏感,这可能与该蛋白质的空间结构特征或脑组织中存在的某种蛋白酶抑制因子有关.     

蛋白激酶B抗细胞凋亡的信号转导机制

蛋白激酶B是抗细胞凋亡的重要调节子。蛋白激酶B的抗细胞凋亡机制主要涉及：磷酸化FoxO降低其与凋亡有关的转录活性;使凋亡抑制剂存活蛋白(survivin)的表达增加;使NF-κB活化并转位入核,启动抗凋亡基因的转录;使胱天蛋白酶-8(caspase-8)抑制剂FLIP(FADD—like ICE inhibitory protein)的表达增加;磷酸化MDM2使其转位入核进而抑制p53的促凋亡作用;使糖原合成酶激酶3失活;磷酸化Bad使其与Bcl-2或Bcl—XL解离而抗细胞凋亡;直接磷酸化胱天蛋白酶-9使其激活下游胱天蛋白酶的能力降低。     

胱天蛋白酶-9

在哺乳动物细胞凋亡的过程中 ,需要一系列的半胱氨酰天冬氨酸特异性蛋白酶 (ｃｙｓ ｔｅｉｎｙｌａｓｐａｒｔａｔｅｓｐｅｃｉｆｉｃｐｒｏｔｅａｓｅ) ,简称胱天蛋白酶 (ｃａｓｐａｓｅ)。目前胱天蛋白酶家族中已有1 3个成员 ,根据其氨基端前域的不同 ,分为启动酶和执行酶。启动酶能通过其前域与信号分子结合 ,引起执行酶的活化 ,导致凋亡。胱天蛋白酶的激活途径 ,目前认为有两条 :其一是由细胞表面Ｆａｓ和ＴＮＦ等介导胱天蛋白酶 8活化 ,并依次活化下游分子胱天蛋白酶 3、6、7等 ;其二是由Ｃｙｔ ｃ/Ａｐａｆ 1 /胱天蛋白酶 9/胱天蛋白…     

凋亡相关的斑点样蛋白ASC

与凋亡相关的斑点样蛋白ASC是一种含胱天蛋白酶募集域和热蛋白样结构域的蛋白质,它与NF-кB、胱天蛋白酶-1(caspase-1)和热蛋白(pyrin)等多种分子有关,在炎症、细胞凋亡和肿瘤等方面发挥重要作用。     

线粒体凋亡途径的研究进展

线粒体凋亡途径是细胞凋亡的主要途径之一。是目前研究凋亡的热点,各种凋亡刺激信号通过BH3（Bcl-2homology domain3)-only蛋白引起Bax(Bcl-2-asslciated proteinX)蛋白移位到线粒体外膜并多聚化,形成膜通道,刺激线粒体释放细胞色素C（CytC)和Smac(second mitochondrial-derived activator of caspase),CytC通过Apaf-1因子的多聚化与胱天蛋白酶（caspases)-9形成凋亡小体,导致下游胱天蛋白酶的级联反应,而凋亡蛋白抑制因子（IAP）和Smac通过抑制和促进胱天蛋白酶的级联反应来调控细胞凋亡。     

凋亡诱导因子(AIF)对细胞凋亡的调控

凋亡诱导因子（apoptosis-inducing factor,AIF）是一种具有凋亡诱导活性的蛋白质,定位于线粒体的膜间隙.细胞受到凋亡刺激时,AIF分子从线粒体释放到胞质,然后再易位到核,与染色体DNA结合,使染色体核周边凝集和DNA断裂成约50kb的大片段.AIF具有凋亡诱导活性和氧化还原酶活性,但二者的作用是脱偶联的.AIF是第一个被鉴定出可以不依赖于胱天蛋白酶（caspase）信号通路而直接介导细胞发生凋亡的分子,但后来也有的报道认为AIF的凋亡活性需依赖于胱天蛋白酶.     

Procaspase-8失调与肿瘤细胞对TRAIL的耐受

肿瘤坏死因子相关凋亡诱导配体(TRAIL)可激活胱天蛋白酶（caspase）家族蛋白系列级联反应,最终诱导细胞凋亡. TRAIL选择性地诱导肿瘤细胞凋亡而不损伤正常细胞,使其成为治疗癌症的潜在药物靶点. 目前已知,细胞型FADD样白介素-1-β转换酶抑制蛋白(c FLIP)和凋亡抑制蛋白(IAPs)是肿瘤细胞对TRAIL耐受的主要原因.胱天蛋白酶原-8（procaspase-8）是TRAIL凋亡信号途径中的凋亡起始蛋白. 然而近年发现,在某些肿瘤细胞中procaspase-8功能失调常会阻碍凋亡信号传导,使肿瘤细胞对TRAIL诱导的凋亡产生耐受. 本文就其机制进行概述.     

p53上调凋亡调制物的促凋亡作用

p53上调凋亡调制物(p53up-regulated modulator of apoptosis,PUMA)是Bcl-2家族中BH3-only(Bcl-2 homology 3-only)蛋白质家族成员,通过其BH3结构域与所有的Bcl-2抗凋亡蛋白质结合,引发线粒体功能障碍和胱天蛋白酶(caspase)级联反应,诱导细胞凋亡。PUMA被证实在多种病理性应激介导的细胞凋亡中发挥着至关重要的作用,因而成为近年研究的热点。     

Activation of a Cysteine Protease in MCF-7 and T47D Breast Cancer Cells during β-Lapachone-Mediated Apoptosis

β-Lapachone (β-lap) effectively killed MCF-7 and T47D cell lines via apoptosis in a cell-cycle-independent manner. However, the mechanism by which this compound activated downstream proteolytic execution processes were studied. At low concentrations, β-lap activated the caspase-mediated pathway, similar to the topoisomerase I poison, topotecan; apoptotic reactions caused by both agents at these doses were inhibited by zVAD-fmk. However at higher doses of β-lap, a novel non-caspase-mediated “atypical” cleavage of PARP (i.e., an 60-kDa cleavage fragment) was observed. Atypical PARP cleavage directly correlated with apoptosis in MCF-7 cells and was inhibited by the global cysteine protease inhibitors iodoacetamide and N-ethylmaleimide. This cleavage was insensitive to inhibitors of caspases, granzyme B, cathepsins B and L, trypsin, and chymotrypsin-like proteases. The protease responsible appears to be calcium-dependent and the concomitant cleavage of PARP and p53 was consistent with a β-lap-mediated activation of calpain. β-Lap exposure also stimulated the cleavage of lamin B, a putative caspase 6 substrate. Reexpression of procaspase-3 into caspase-3-null MCF-7 cells did not affect this atypical PARP proteolytic pathway. These findings demonstrate that β-lap kills cells through the cell-cycle-independent activation of a noncaspase proteolytic pathway.     

Activation of a cysteine protease in MCF-7 and T47D breast cancer cells during beta-lapachone-mediated apoptosis

beta-Lapachone (beta-lap) effectively killed MCF-7 and T47D cell lines via apoptosis in a cell-cycle-independent manner. However, the mechanism by which this compound activated downstream proteolytic execution processes were studied. At low concentrations, beta-lap activated the caspase-mediated pathway, similar to the topoisomerase I poison, topotecan; apoptotic reactions caused by both agents at these doses were inhibited by zVAD-fmk. However at higher doses of beta-lap, a novel non-caspase-mediated "atypical" cleavage of PARP (i.e., an approximately 60-kDa cleavage fragment) was observed. Atypical PARP cleavage directly correlated with apoptosis in MCF-7 cells and was inhibited by the global cysteine protease inhibitors iodoacetamide and N-ethylmaleimide. This cleavage was insensitive to inhibitors of caspases, granzyme B, cathepsins B and L, trypsin, and chymotrypsin-like proteases. The protease responsible appears to be calcium-dependent and the concomitant cleavage of PARP and p53 was consistent with a beta-lap-mediated activation of calpain. beta-Lap exposure also stimulated the cleavage of lamin B, a putative caspase 6 substrate. Reexpression of procaspase-3 into caspase-3-null MCF-7 cells did not affect this atypical PARP proteolytic pathway. These findings demonstrate that beta-lap kills cells through the cell-cycle-independent activation of a noncaspase proteolytic pathway.     

Neuronal apoptosis inhibitory protein,NAIP, is an inhibitor of procaspase-9

Ability of the full length NAIP and its BIR3 domain in inhibition of the proteases of the intrinsic apoptosis pathway was investigated. Activity of endogenous executioner caspases was drastically reduced by both recombinant NAIP-BIR3 (NBIR3) and the full length protein. Western blotting experiments showed that the full length NAIP and its BIR3 domain inhibited the cleavage of procaspase-3 by apoptosome activated caspase-9. Moreover, full length NAIP inhibited autocatalytic processing of procaspase-9 in the apoptosome complex indicating that unlike other inhibitor of apoptosis proteins (IAPs) human NAIP is an inhibitor of procaspase-9. Furthermore, inhibition of single-chain caspase-9 (human caspase-9, D315, D330/A point mutations that abrogate the proteolytic processing but not the catalytic activity of caspase-9) by the BIR3 domain indicated that the this domain is the caspase-9 interacting moiety. Consistently, pull-down experiments of single-chain capsase-9 in apoptosome complex by the NBIR3 but not the X-linked inhibitor of apoptosis protein (XIAP)-BIR3 domain confirmed that the protein can associate with procaspase-9 prior to its autoproteolysis upon apoptosome formation. Interaction studies revealed the association of C338W variant of the NBIR3, but not the wild type protein with both SMAC-peptide and the SMAC protein. These data indicate that mutation of C338 to Trp is sufficient to accommodate the interaction of NAIP-BIR3 with SMAC-peptide and protein. Taken together, these results demonstrate that NAIP is evolved to prevent apoptosis right at the initiation stage of apoptosome formation and this inhibition cannot be antagonized by SMAC-type proteins.     

Proteolysis of HIP during apoptosis occurs within a region similar to the BID loop

BID is an essential component of many apoptotic pathways. Cytosolic proteases cleave BID within an extended loop region, generating an active truncated fragment which synergizes with BAX and BAK to induce release of apoptogenic factors from mitochondria. To determine whether other proteins are cleaved in a similar manner as BID, we performed a database search for proteins which possess sequence similarity with the BID loop region. One of the proteins identified was the Hsc70-interacting protein (HIP). We analyzed the cleavage pattern of HIP using two known activators of BID: granzyme B and caspase-8. In in vitro cleavage assays using recombinant proteins, human and rat HIP were cleaved by granzyme B. Furthermore, the granzyme B-mediated cleavage site was mapped to the BID loop-like region of HIP by site-directed mutagenesis. This region was also the target for caspase-8-mediated cleavage in rat HIP. However, human HIP was not proteolyzed by caspase-8, which probably reflects sequence differences between human and rat HIP proteins at the P₁′ position of the caspase-8 recognition sequence. To determine whether HIP is cleaved during apoptosis, human Jurkat T cells were exposed to granzyme B and perforin. The results of these studies suggest that granzyme B-mediated loss of HIP expression occurs in vivo, and in a coordinate fashion with loss of BID, pro-caspase-8 and pro-caspase-3. These data implicate the Hsp70 co-chaperone HIP in the proteolytic cascade of some apoptotic pathways.     

Granzyme B-mediated apoptosis proceeds predominantly through a Bcl-2-inhibitable mitochondrial pathway

Cytotoxic T lymphocytes kill virus-infected and tumor cell targets through the concerted action of proteins contained in cytolytic granules, primarily granzyme B and perforin. Granzyme B, a serine proteinase with substrate specificity similar to the caspase family of apoptotic cysteine proteinases, is capable of cleaving and activating a number of death proteins in target cells. Despite the ability to engage the death pathway at multiple entry points, the preferred mechanism for rapid induction of apoptosis by granzyme B has yet to be clearly established. Here we use time lapse confocal microscopy to demonstrate that mitochondrial cytochrome c release is the primary mode of granzyme B-induced apoptosis and that Bcl-2 is a potent inhibitor of this pivotal event. Caspase activation is not required for cytochrome c release, an activity that correlates with cleavage and activation of Bid, which we have found to be cleaved more readily by granzyme B than either caspase-3 or caspase-8. Bcl-2 blocks the rapid destruction of targets by granzyme B by blocking mitochondrial involvement in the process.     

Direct cleavage of the human DNA fragmentation factor-45 by granzyme B induces caspase-activated DNase release and DNA fragmentation.

The protease granzyme B (GrB) plays a key role in the cytocidal activity during cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL)-mediated programmed cell death. Multiple caspases have been identified as direct substrates for GrB, suggesting that the activation of caspases constitutes an important event during CTL-induced cell death. However, recent studies have provided evidence for caspase-independent pathway(s) during CTL-mediated apoptosis. In this study, we demonstrate caspase-independent and direct cleavage of the 45 kDa unit of DNA fragmentation factor (DFF45) by GrB both in vitro and in vivo. Using a novel and selective caspase-3 inhibitor, we show the ability of GrB to process DFF45 directly and mediate DNA fragmentation in the absence of caspase-3 activity. Furthermore, studies with DFF45 mutants reveal that both caspase-3 and GrB share a common cleavage site, which is necessary and sufficient to induce DNA fragmentation in target cells during apoptosis. Together, our data suggest that CTLs possess alternative mechanism(s) for inducing DNA fragmentation without the requirement for caspases.     

Yeast two-hybrid screening using constitutive-active caspase-7 as bait in the identification of PA28gamma as an effector caspase substrate

Caspase-3 and -7 represent executioner/effector caspases that directly cause apoptotic morphological changes by cleaving various death substrates. The substrates for caspases generally interact with active caspases, but not with inactive zymogens of caspase or procaspases. Here, to isolate proteins that interact with caspase-7, we established a yeast two-hybrid screening system using reversed-caspase-7, a constitutive active mutant of caspase-7 as a bait plasmid. Screening of an adult brain cDNA library led to isolation of proteasome activator 28 subunit, PA28gamma. In vitro translates of PA28gamma were cleaved by both recombinant caspase-3 and -7. Mutagenesis of potential cleavage site DGLD80 to EGLE80 completely abolished caspase-mediated cleavage. Moreover, endogenous PA28gamma was cleaved during not only Fas-induced apoptosis of HeLa cells, but also cisplatin-induced cell death of MCF7 cells, which are devoid of caspase-3. These findings indicate that PA28gamma is an endogenous substrate for caspase-3 and -7 and that yeast two-hybrid screening using reversed-caspase is a novel and useful approach to clone substrates for effector caspases.     

Unspecific activation of caspases during the induction of apoptosis by didemnin B in human cell lines

Caspases have been implicated in the induction of apoptosis in most systems studied. The importance of caspases for apoptosis was further investigated using the system of didemnin B-induced apoptosis. We found that benzyloxycarbonyl-VAD-fluoromethylketone, a general caspase inhibitor, inhibits didemnin B-induced apoptosis in HL-60 and Daudi cells. Acetyl-YVAD-chloromethylketone, a caspase-1-like activity inhibitor, inhibits didemnin B-induced apoptosis in Daudi cells, whereas the caspase-3-like activity inhibitor, acetyl-DEVD-aldehyde, has no effect. Using immunoblots to investigate cleavage of caspases-1 and -3, we found that both caspases are activated in both cell lines. We showed that the caspase substrate poly(ADP-ribose)polymerase is cleaved in these cells after didemnin B treatment. In both cell lines, poly(ADP-ribose)polymerase cleavage is inhibited by benzyloxycarbonyl-VAD-fluoromethylketone and also by acetyl-YVAD-chloromethylketone in Daudi cells. These results indicate that a caspase(s) other than caspase-3 is required for didemnin B-induced apoptosis. We show that caspases may be activated during apoptosis that are not required for the progression of apoptosis.