Interaction of the yeast splicing factor PRP8 with substrate RNA during both steps of splicing.

PRP8 protein of Saccharomyces cerevisiae interacts directly with pre-mRNA in spliceosomes, shown previously by UV-crosslinking. To analyse at which steps of splicing and with which precursor-derived RNA species the interaction(s) take place, UV-crosslinking was combined with PRP8-specific immunoprecipitation and the coprecipitated RNA species were analysed. Specific precipitation of intron-exon 2 and excised intron species was observed. PRP8 protein could be UV-crosslinked to pre-mRNA in PRP2-depleted spliceosomes stalled before initiation of the splicing reaction. Thus, the interaction of PRP8 protein with substrate RNA is established prior to the first transesterification reaction, is maintained during both steps of splicing and continues with the excised intron after completion of the splicing reaction. RNase T1 treatment of spliceosomes revealed that substrate RNA fragments of the 5' splice site region and the branchpoint-3' splice site region could be coimmunoprecipitated with PRP8 specific antibodies, indicating that these are potential sites of interaction for PRP8 protein with substrate RNA. Protection of the branch-point-3' splice site region was detected only after step 1 of splicing. The results allow a first glimpse at the pattern of PRP8 protein-RNA interactions during splicing and provide a fundamental basis for future analysis of these interactions.     

U5 snRNA interacts with exon sequences at 5' and 3' splice sites.

U5 snRNA is an essential pre-mRNA splicing factor whose function remains enigmatic. Specific mutations in a conserved single-stranded loop sequence in yeast U5 snRNA can activate cleavage of G1----A mutant pre-mRNAs at aberrant 5' splice sites and facilitate processing of dead-end lariat intermediates to mRNA. Activation of aberrant 5' cleavage sites involves base pairing between U5 snRNA and nucleotides upstream of the cleavage site. Processing of dead-end lariat intermediates to mRNA correlates with base pairing between U5 and the first two bases in exon 2. The loop sequence in U5 snRNA may therefore by intimately involved in the transesterification reactions at 5' and 3' splice sites. This pattern of interactions is strikingly reminiscent of exon recognition events in group II self-splicing introns and is consistent with the notion that U5 snRNA may be related to a specific functional domain from a group II-like self-splicing ancestral intron.     

Polypyrimidine tract binding protein blocks the 5' splice site-dependent assembly of U2AF and the prespliceosomal E complex

Polypyrimidine tract binding protein (PTB) represses some alternatively spliced exons by direct occlusion of splice sites. In repressing the splicing of the c-src N1 exon, we find that PTB acts by a different mechanism. PTB does not interfere with U1 snRNP binding to the N1 5' splice site. Instead, PTB prevents formation of the prespliceosomal early (E) complex across the intervening intron by preventing the assembly of the splicing factor U2AF on the 3' splice site of exon 4. When the unregulated 5' splice site of the upstream exon 3 is present, U2AF binding is restored and splicing between exons 3 and 4 proceeds in spite of the N1 exon bound PTB. Thus, rather than directly blocking the N1 splice sites, PTB prevents the 5' splice site-dependent assembly of U2AF into the E complex. This mechanism likely occurs in many other alternative exons.     

Genetic interaction between U6 snRNA and the first intron nucleotide in Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

Nuclear pre-mRNA splicing necessitates specific recognition of the pre-mRNA splice sites. It is known that 5' splice site selection requires base pairing of U6 snRNA with intron positions 4-6. However, no factor recognizing the highly conserved 5' splice site GU has yet been identified. We have tested if the known U6 snRNA-pre-mRNA interaction could be extended to include the first intron nucleotides and the conserved 50GAG52 sequence of U6 snRNA. We observe that some combinations of 5' splice site and U6 snRNA mutations produce a specific synthetic block to the first splicing step. In addition, the U6-G52U allele can switch between two competing 5' splice sites harboring different nucleotides following the cleavage site. These results indicate that U6 snRNA position 52 interacts with the first nucleotide of the intron before 5' splice site cleavage. Some combinations of U6 snRNA and pre-mRNA mutations also blocked the second splicing step, suggesting a role for the corresponding nucleotides in a proofreading step before exon ligation. From studies in diverse organisms, various functions have been ascribed to the conserved U6 snRNA 47ACAGAG52 sequence. Our results suggest that these discrepancies might reflect variations between different experimental systems and point to an important conserved role of this sequence in the splicing reaction.     

Mutations at the 3' splice site can be suppressed by compensatory base changes in U1 snRNA in fission yeast.

U1 snRNA is an essential splicing factor known to base pair with 5' splice sites of premessenger RNAs. We demonstrate that pairing between the universally conserved CU just downstream from the 5' junction interaction region and the 3' splice site AG contributes to efficient splicing of Schizosaccharomyces pombe introns that typify the AG-dependent class described in mammals. Strains carrying mutations in the 3' AG of an artificial intron accumulate linear precursor, indicative of a first step block. Lariat formation is partially restored in these mutants by compensatory changes in nucleotides C7 and U8 of U1 snRNA. Consistent with a general role in fission yeast splicing, mutations at C7 are lethal, while U8 mutants are growth impaired and accumulate linear, unspliced precursor to U6 snRNA. U1 RNA-mediated recognition of the 3' splice site may have origins in analogous intramolecular interactions in an ancestral self-splicing RNA.     

Exon definition may facilitate splice site selection in RNAs with multiple exons.

Interactions at the 3' end of the intron initiate spliceosome assembly and splice site selection in vertebrate pre-mRNAs. Multiple factors, including U1 small nuclear ribonucleoproteins (snRNPs), are involved in initial recognition at the 3' end of the intron. Experiments were designed to test the possibility that U1 snRNP interaction at the 3' end of the intron during early assembly functions to recognize and define the downstream exon and its resident 5' splice site. Splicing precursor RNAs constructed to have elongated second exons lacking 5' splice sites were deficient in spliceosome assembly and splicing activity in vitro. Similar substrates including a 5' splice site at the end of exon 2 assembled and spliced normally as long as the second exon was less than 300 nucleotides long. U2 snRNPs were required for protection of the 5' splice site terminating exon 2, suggesting direct communication during early assembly between factors binding the 3' and 5' splice sites bordering an exon. We suggest that exons are recognized and defined as units during early assembly by binding of factors to the 3' end of the intron, followed by a search for a downstream 5' splice site. In this view, only the presence of both a 3' and a 5' splice site in the correct orientation and within 300 nucleotides of one another will stable exon complexes be formed. Concerted recognition of exons may help explain the 300-nucleotide-length maximum of vertebrate internal exons, the mechanism whereby the splicing machinery ignores cryptic sites within introns, the mechanism whereby exon skipping is normally avoided, and the phenotypes of 5' splice site mutations that inhibit splicing of neighboring introns.     

The RNA-binding protein TIA-1 is a novel mammalian splicing regulator acting through intron sequences adjacent to a 5' splice site

Splicing of the K-SAM alternative exon of the fibroblast growth factor receptor 2 gene is heavily dependent on the U-rich sequence IAS1 lying immediately downstream from its 5' splice site. We show that IAS1 can activate the use of several heterologous 5' splice sites in vitro. Addition of the RNA-binding protein TIA-1 to splicing extracts preferentially enhances the use of 5' splice sites linked to IAS1. TIA-1 can provoke a switch to use of such sites on pre-mRNAs with competing 5' splice sites, only one of which is adjacent to IAS1. Using a combination of UV cross-linking and specific immunoprecipitation steps, we show that TIA-1 binds to IAS1 in cell extracts. This binding is stronger if IAS1 is adjacent to a 5' splice site and is U1 snRNP dependent. Overexpression of TIA-1 in cultured cells activates K-SAM exon splicing in an IAS1-dependent manner. If IAS1 is replaced with a bacteriophage MS2 operator, splicing of the K-SAM exon can no longer be activated by TIA-1. Splicing can, however, be activated by a TIA-1-MS2 coat protein fusion, provided that the operator is close to the 5' splice site. Our results identify TIA-1 as a novel splicing regulator, which acts by binding to intron sequences immediately downstream from a 5' splice site in a U1 snRNP-dependent fashion. TIA-1 is distantly related to the yeast U1 snRNP protein Nam8p, and the functional similarities between the two proteins are discussed.     

Spatial organization of protein-RNA interactions in the branch site-3' splice site region during pre-mRNA splicing in yeast

A series of efficiently spliced pre-mRNA substrates containing single 4-thiouridine residues were used to monitor RNA-protein interactions involving the branch site-3' splice site-3' exon region during yeast pre-mRNA splicing through cross-linking analysis. Prior to the assembly of the prespliceosome, Mud2p and the branch point bridging protein cross-link to a portion of this region in an ATP-independent fashion. Assembly of the prespliceosome leads to extensive cross-linking of the U2-associated protein Hsh155p to this region. Following the first step of splicing and in a manner independent of Prp16p, the U5 small nuclear ribonucleoprotein particle-associated protein Prp8p also associates extensively with the branch site-3' splice site-3' exon region. The subsequent cross-linking of Prp16p to the lariat intermediate is restricted to the 3' splice site and the adjacent 3' exon sequence. Using modified substrates to either mutationally or chemically block the second step, we found that the association of Prp22p with the lariat intermediate represents an authentic transient intermediate and appears to be restricted to the last eight intron nucleotides. Completion of the second step leads to the cross-linking of an unidentified approximately 80-kDa protein near the branch site sequence, suggesting a potential role for this protein in a later step in intron metabolism. Taken together, these data provide a detailed portrayal of the dynamic associations of proteins with the branch site-3' splice site region during spliceosome assembly and catalysis.     

ATP-dependent interaction of yeast U5 snRNA loop 1 with the 5' splice site.

Pre-messenger RNA splicing is a two-step process by which introns are removed and exons joined together. In yeast, the U5 snRNA loop 1 interacts with the 5' exon before the first step of splicing and with the 5' and 3' exons before the second step. In vitro studies revealed that yeast U5 loop 1 is not required for the first step of splicing but is essential for holding the 5' and 3' exons for ligation during the second step. It is critical, therefore, that loop 1 contacts the 5' exon before the first step of splicing to hold this exon following cleavage from the pre-mRNA. At present it is not known how U5 loop 1 is positioned on the 5' exon prior to the first step of splicing. To address this question, we have used site-specific photoactivated crosslinking in yeast spliceosomes to investigate the interaction of U5 loop 1 with the pre-mRNA prior to the first step of splicing. We have found that the highly conserved uridines in loop 1 make ATP-dependent contacts with an approximately 8-nt region at the 5' splice site that includes the invariant GU. These interactions are dependent on functional U2 and U6 snRNAs. Our results support a model where U5 snRNA loop 1 interacts with the 5' exon in two steps during its targeting to the 5' splice site.     

Prp16p, Slu7p, and Prp8p interact with the 3' splice site in two distinct stages during the second catalytic step of pre-mRNA splicing.

For the second catalytic step of pre-mRNA splicing to occur, a 3' splice site must be selected and juxtaposed with the 5' exon. Four proteins, Prp16p, Slu7p, Prp17p, Prp18p, and an integral spliceosomal protein, Prp8p, are known to be required for the second catalytic step. prp8-101, an allele of PRP8 defective in 3' splice site recognition, exhibits specific genetic interactions with mutant alleles of the other second step splicing factors. The prp8-101 mutation also results in decreased crosslinking of Prp8p to the 3' splice site. To determine the role of the step-two-specific proteins in 3' splice site recognition and in binding of Prp8p to the 3' splice site, we performed crosslinking studies in mutant and immunodepleted extracts. Our results suggest an ordered pathway in which, after the first catalytic step, Prp16p crosslinks strongly to the 3' splice site and Prp8p and Slu7p crosslink weakly. ATP hydrolysis by Prp16p affects a conformational change that reduces the crosslinking of Prp16p with the 3' splice site and allows stronger crosslinking of Prp8p and Slu7p. Thus, the 3' splice site appears to be recognized in two stages during the second step of splicing. Strong 3' splice site crosslinking of Prp8p and Slu7p also requires the functions of Prp17p and Prp18p. Therefore, Prp8p and Slu7p interact with the 3' splice site at the latest stage of splicing prior to the second catalytic step that can currently be defined, and may be at the active site.     

Splice site selection by intron aI3 of the COX1 gene from Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

Interactions of the 5' and 3' splice sites with intron internal sequences of the yeast mitochondrial group I intron aI3 were studied using mutation analysis. The results can be fully explained by the splice guide model in which the splice sites are defined by the Internal Guide Sequence. No evidence was found for an alternative interaction between intron nucleotides preceding the 3' splice site and nucleotides in the vicinity of the core region as was found for the Tetrahymena intron. Our results also suggest that binding of the 5' and 3' splice site nucleotides to the IGS can not take place simultaneously. The intron must therefore undergo conformational changes as the reaction proceeds from the first step of self splicing, GTP attack at the 5' splice site, to exon ligation, the second step.     

The conserved U.G pair in the 5'' splice site duplex of a group I intron is required in the first but not the second step of self-splicing.

Group I self-splicing introns have a 5' splice site duplex (P1) that contains a single conserved base pair (U.G). The U is the last nucleotide of the 5' exon, and the G is part of the internal guide sequence within the intron. Using site-specific mutagenesis and analysis of the rate and accuracy of splicing of the Tetrahymena thermophila group I intron, we found that both the U and the G of the U.G pair are important for the first step of self-splicing (attack of GTP at the 5' splice site). Mutation of the U to a purine activated cryptic 5' splice sites in which a U.G pair was restored; this result emphasizes the preference for a U.G at the splice site. Nevertheless, some splicing persisted at the normal site after introduction of a purine, suggesting that position within the P1 helix is another determinant of 5' splice site choice. When the U was changed to a C, the accuracy of splicing was not affected, but the Km for GTP was increased by a factor of 15 and the catalytic rate constant was decreased by a factor of 7. Substitution of U.A, U.U, G.G, or A.G for the conserved U.G decreased the rate of splicing by an even greater amount. In contrast, mutation of the conserved G enhanced the second step of splicing, as evidenced by a trans-splicing assay. Furthermore, a free 5' exon ending in A or C instead of the conserved U underwent efficient ligation. Thus, unlike the remainder of the P1 helix, which functions in both the first and second steps of self-splicing, the conserved U.G appears to be important only for the first step.     

snRNA interactions at 5' and 3' splice sites monitored by photoactivated crosslinking in yeast spliceosomes.

Splice site recognition and catalysis of the transesterification reactions in the spliceosome are accompanied by a dynamic series of interactions involving conserved or invariant sequences in the spliceosomal snRNAs. We have used site-specific photoactivated crosslinking in yeast spliceosomes to monitor interactions between snRNAs and exon sequences near the 5' and 3' splice sites. The last nucleotide of the 5' exon can be crosslinked to an invariant loop sequence in U5 SnRNA before and after 5' splice site cleavage. The first nucleotide of the 3' exon can also be crosslinked to the same U5 loop sequence, but this contact is only detectable after the first transesterification. These results are in close agreement with earlier data from mammalian splicing extracts, and they are consistent with a model in which U5 snRNA aligns the 5' and 3' exons for the second transesterification. After the first catalytic step of splicing, the first nucleotide of the 3' exon can also crosslink to nt U23 in U2 snRNA. This is one of a cluster of residues in U2-U6 helix I implicated by mutational analysis in the second catalytic step of splicing. The crosslinking data suggest that these residues in U2-U6 helix I are in close proximity to the scissile phosphodiester bond at the 3' splice site prior to the second transesterification. These results constitute the first biochemical evidence for a direct interaction between the 3' splice site and U2 snRNA.     

Exonic splicing enhancers contribute to the use of both 3' and 5' splice site usage of rat beta-tropomyosin pre-mRNA

The rat beta-tropomyosin gene encodes two tissue-specific isoforms that contain the internal, mutually exclusive exons 6 (nonmuscle/smooth muscle) and 7 (skeletal muscle). We previously demonstrated that the 3' splice site of exon 6 can be activated by introducing a 9-nt polyuridine tract at its 3' splice site, or by strengthening the 5' splice site to a U1 consensus binding site, or by joining exon 6 to the downstream common exon 8. Examination of sequences within exons 6 and 8 revealed the presence of two purine-rich motifs in exon 6 and three purine-rich motifs in exon 8 that could potentially represent exonic splicing enhancers (ESEs). In this report we carried out substitution mutagenesis of these elements and show that some of them play a critical role in the splice site usage of exon 6 in vitro and in vivo. Using UV crosslinking, we have identified SF2/ASF as one of the cellular factors that binds to these motifs. Furthermore, we show that substrates that have mutated ESEs are blocked prior to A-complex formation, supporting a role for SF2/ASF binding to the ESEs during the commitment step in splicing. Using pre-mRNA substrates containing exons 5 through 8, we show that the ESEs within exon 6 also play a role in cooperation between the 3' and 5' splice sites flanking this exon. The splicing of exon 6 to 8 (i.e., 5' splice site usage of exon 6) was enhanced with pre-mRNAs containing either the polyuridine tract in the 3' splice site or consensus sequence in the 5' splice site around exon 6. We show that the ESEs in exon 6 are required for this effect. However, the ESEs are not required when both the polyuridine and consensus splice site sequences around exon 6 were present in the same pre-mRNA. These results support and extend the exon-definition hypothesis and demonstrate that sequences at the 3' splice site can facilitate use of a downstream 5' splice site. In addition, the data support the hypothesis that ESEs can compensate for weak splice sites, such as those found in alternatively spliced exons, thereby providing a target for regulation.     

Genetic interactions between the 5'' and 3'' splice site consensus sequences and U6 snRNA during the second catalytic step of pre-mRNA splicing.

The YAG/ consensus sequence at the 3' end of introns (the slash indicates the location of the 3' splice site) is essential for catalysis of the second step of pre-mRNA splicing. Little is known about the interactions formed by these three nucleotides in the spliceosome. Although previous observations have suggested that the G of the YAG/ interacts with the first nucleotide of the /GUA consensus sequence at the 5' end of the intron, additional interactions have not been identified. Here we report several striking genetic interactions between A+3 of the 5' /GUA with Y-3 of the 3' YAG/ and G50 of the highly conserved ACAGAG motif in U6 snRNA. Two mutations in U6 G50 of the ACAGAG can weakly suppress two mutations in A+3 of the 5' /GUA. This suppression is significantly enhanced upon the inclusion of a specific mutation Y-3 in the 3' YAG/. RNA analysis confirmed that the severe splicing defect observed in A+3 and Y-3 double mutants can be rescued to near wild-type levels by the mutations in U6 G50. The contributions of each mutation to the genetic interaction and the strong position specificity of suppression, combined with previous findings, support a model in which the 5' /GUA and the GAG of U6 function in binding the 3' YAG/ during the second catalytic step.     

Antagonistic effects of the SRp30c protein and cryptic 5' splice sites on the alternative splicing of the apoptotic regulator Bcl-x

Alternative 5' splice site selection allows Bcl-x to produce two isoforms with opposite effects on apoptosis. The pro-apoptotic Bcl-x(S) variant is up-regulated by ceramide and down-regulated by protein kinase C through specific cis-acting exonic elements, one of which is bound by SAP155. Splicing to the Bcl-x(S) 5' splice site is also enforced by heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein (hnRNP) F/H proteins and by Sam68 in cooperation with hnRNP A1. Here, we have characterized exon elements that influence splicing to the 5' splice site of the anti-apoptotic Bcl-x(L) isoform. Within a 86-nucleotide region (B3) located immediately upstream of the Bcl-x(L) donor site we have identified two elements (ML2 and AM2) that stimulate splicing to the Bcl-x(L) 5' splice site. SRp30c binds to these elements and can shift splicing to the 5' splice site of Bcl-x(L) in an ML2/AM2-dependent manner in vitro and in vivo. The B3 region also contains an element that represses the use of Bcl-x(L). This element is bound by U1 small nuclear ribonucleoprotein and contains two 5' splice sites that can be used when the Bcl-x(L) 5' splice site is mutated or the ML2/AM2 elements are deleted. Conversely, mutating the cryptic 5' splice sites stimulates splicing to the Bcl-x(L) site. Thus, SRp30c stimulates splicing to the downstream 5' splice site of Bcl-x(L), thereby attenuating the repressive effect of upstream U1 snRNP binding sites.     

The role of branchpoint-3'' splice site spacing and interaction between intron terminal nucleotides in 3'' splice site selection in Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

A conserved 3' splice site YAG is essential for the second step of pre-mRNA splicing but no trans-acting factor recognizing this sequence has been found. A direct, non-Watson-Crick interaction between the intron terminal nucleotides was suggested to affect YAG selection. The mechanism of YAG recognition was proposed to involve 5' to 3' scanning originating from the branchpoint or the polypyrimidine tract. We have constructed a yeast intron harbouring two closely spaced 3' splice sites. Preferential selection of a wild-type site over mutant ones indicated that the two sites are competing. For two identical sequences, the proximal site is selected. As previously observed, an A at the first intron nucleotide spliced most efficiently with a 3' splice site UAC. In this context, UAA or UAU were also more efficient 3' splice sites than UAG and competed more efficiently than the wild-type sequence with a 3' splice site UAC. We observed that a U at the first intron nucleotide is used for splicing in combination with 3' splice sites UAG, UAA or UAU. Our data indicate that the 3' splice site is not primarily selected through an interaction with the first intron nucleotide. Selection of the 3' splice site depends critically on its distance from the branchpoint but does not occur by a simple leaky scanning mechanism.     

RBFOX2 promotes protein 4.1R exon 16 selection via U1 snRNP recruitment

The erythroid differentiation-specific splicing switch of protein 4.1R exon 16, which encodes a spectrin/actin-binding peptide critical for erythrocyte membrane stability, is modulated by the differentiation-induced splicing factor RBFOX2. We have now characterized the mechanism by which RBFOX2 regulates exon 16 splicing through the downstream intronic element UGCAUG. Exon 16 possesses a weak 5' splice site (GAG/GTTTGT), which when strengthened to a consensus sequence (GAG/GTAAGT) leads to near-total exon 16 inclusion. Impaired RBFOX2 binding reduces exon 16 inclusion in the context of the native weak 5' splice site, but not the engineered strong 5' splice site, implying that RBFOX2 achieves its effect by promoting utilization of the weak 5' splice site. We further demonstrate that RBFOX2 increases U1 snRNP recruitment to the weak 5' splice site through direct interaction between its C-terminal domain (CTD) and the zinc finger region of U1C and that the CTD is required for the effect of RBFOX2 on exon 16 splicing. Our data suggest a novel mechanism for exon 16 5' splice site activation in which the binding of RBFOX2 to downstream intronic splicing enhancers stabilizes the pre-mRNA-U1 snRNP complex through interactions with U1C.     

Identification of proteins that interact with exon sequences, splice sites, and the branchpoint sequence during each stage of spliceosome assembly.

We have carried out a systematic analysis of the proteins that interact with specific intron and exon sequences during each stage of mammalian spliceosome assembly. This was achieved by site-specifically labeling individual nucleotides within the 5' and 3' splice sites, the branchpoint sequence (BPS), or the exons with 32P and identifying UV-cross-linked proteins in the E, A, B, or C spliceosomal complex. Significantly, two members of the SR family of splicing factors, which are known to promote E-complex assembly, cross-link within exon sequences to a region approximately 25 nucleotides upstream from the 5' splice site. At the 5' splice site, cross-linking of the U5 small nuclear ribonucleoprotein particle protein, U5(200), was detected in both the B and C complexes. As observed in yeast cells, U5(200), also cross-links to intron/exon sequences at the 3' splice site in the C complex and may play a role in aligning the 5' and 3' exons for ligation. With label at the branch site, we detected three distinct proteins, designated BPS72,BpS70, and BPS56, which replace one another in the E, A, and C complexes. Another dynamic exchange was detected with pre-mRNA labeled at the AG dinucleotide of the 3' splice site. In this case, a protein, AG100,cross-links in the A complex and is replaced by another protein, AG75, in the C complex. The observation that these proteins are specifically associated with critical pre-mRNA sequence elements in functional complexes at different stages of spliceosome assembly implicates roles for these factors in key recognition events during the splicing pathway.