Contemporary carbon accumulation in a boreal oligotrophic minerogenic mire – a significant sink after accounting for all C-fluxes

Based on theories of mire development and responses to a changing climate, the current role of mires as a net carbon sink has been questioned. A rigorous evaluation of the current net C-exchange in mires requires measurements of all relevant fluxes. Estimates of annual total carbon budgets in mires are still very limited. Here, we present a full carbon budget over 2 years for a boreal minerogenic oligotrophic mire in northern Sweden (64°11′N, 19°33′E). Data on the following fluxes were collected: land–atmosphere CO₂ exchange (continuous Eddy covariance measurements) and CH₄ exchange (static chambers during the snow free period); TOC (total organic carbon) in precipitation; loss of TOC, dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) and CH₄ through stream water runoff (continuous discharge measurements and regular C-concentration measurements). The mire constituted a net sink of 27±3.4 (±SD) g C m⁻² yr⁻¹ during 2004 and 20±3.4 g C m⁻² yr⁻¹ during 2005. This could be partitioned into an annual surface–atmosphere CO₂ net uptake of 55±1.9 g C m⁻² yr⁻¹ during 2004 and 48±1.6 g C m⁻² yr⁻¹ during 2005. The annual NEE was further separated into a net uptake season, with an uptake of 92 g C m⁻² yr⁻¹ during 2004 and 86 g C m⁻² yr⁻¹ during 2005, and a net loss season with a loss of 37 g C m⁻² yr⁻¹ during 2004 and 38 g C m⁻² yr⁻¹ during 2005. Of the annual net CO₂-C uptake, 37% and 31% was lost through runoff (with runoff TOC>DIC≫CH₄) and 16% and 29% through methane emission during 2004 and 2005, respectively. This mire is still a significant C-sink, with carbon accumulation rates comparable to the long-term Holocene C-accumulation, and higher than the C-accumulation during the late Holocene in the region.     

Contemporary carbon balance and late Holocene carbon accumulation in a northern peatland

Northern peatlands contain up to 25% of the world's soil carbon (C) and have an estimated annual exchange of CO₂‐C with the atmosphere of 0.1–0.5 Pg yr⁻¹ and of CH₄‐C of 10–25 Tg yr⁻¹. Despite this overall importance to the global C cycle, there have been few, if any, complete multiyear annual C balances for these ecosystems. We report a 6‐year balance computed from continuous net ecosystem CO₂ exchange (NEE), regular instantaneous measurements of methane (CH₄) emissions, and export of dissolved organic C (DOC) from a northern ombrotrophic bog. From these observations, we have constructed complete seasonal and annual C balances, examined their seasonal and interannual variability, and compared the mean 6‐year contemporary C exchange with the apparent C accumulation for the last 3000 years obtained from C density and age‐depth profiles from two peat cores. The 6‐year mean NEE‐C and CH₄‐C exchange, and net DOC loss are −40.2±40.5 (±1 SD), 3.7±0.5, and 14.9±3.1 g m⁻² yr⁻¹, giving a 6‐year mean balance of −21.5±39.0 g m⁻² yr⁻¹ (where positive exchange is a loss of C from the ecosystem). NEE had the largest magnitude and variability of the components of the C balance, but DOC and CH₄ had similar proportional variabilities and their inclusion is essential to resolve the C balance. There are large interseasonal and interannual ranges to the exchanges due to variations in climatic conditions. We estimate from the largest and smallest seasonal exchanges, quasi‐maximum limits of the annual C balance between 50 and −105 g m⁻² yr⁻¹. The net C accumulation rate obtained from the two peatland cores for the interval 400–3000 bp (samples from the anoxic layer only) were 21.9±2.8 and 14.0±37.6 g m⁻² yr⁻¹, which are not significantly different from the 6‐year mean contemporary exchange.     

Seasonal variation in energy fluxes and carbon dioxide exchange for a broad-leaved semi-arid savanna (Mopane woodland) in Southern Africa

We studied the seasonal variation in carbon dioxide, water vapour and energy fluxes in a broad‐leafed semi‐arid savanna in Southern Africa using the eddy covariance technique. The open woodland studied consisted of an overstorey dominated by Colophospermum mopane with a sparse understorey of grasses and herbs. Measurements presented here cover a 19‐month period from the end of the rainy season in March 1999 to the end of the dry season September 2000. During the wet season, sensible and latent heat fluxes showed a linear dependence on incoming solar radiation (I) with a Bowen ratio (β) typically just below unity. Although β was typically around 1 at low incoming solar radiation (150 W m^?2) during the dry season, it increased dramatically with I, typically being as high as 4 or 5 around solar noon. Thus, under these water‐limited conditions, almost all available energy was dissipated as sensible, rather than latent heat. Marked spikes of CO₂ release occurred at the onset of the rainfall season after isolated rainfall events and respiration dominated the balance well into the rainfall season. During this time, the ecosystem was a constant source of CO₂ with an average flux of 3–5 μmol m^?2 s^?1 to the atmosphere during both day and night. But later in the wet season, for example, in March 2000 under optimal soil moisture conditions, with maximum leaf canopy development (leaf area index 0.9–1.3), the peak ecosystem CO₂ influx was as much as 10 μmol m^?2 s^?1. The net ecosystem maximum photosynthesis at this time was estimated at 14 μmol m^?2 s^?1, with the woodland ecosystem a significant sink for CO₂. During the dry season, just before leaf fall in August, maximum day‐ and night‐time net ecosystem fluxes were typically ?3 μmol m^?2 s^?1 and 1–2 μmol m^?2 s^?1, respectively, with the ecosystem still being a marginal sink. Over the course of 12 months (March 1999–March 2000), the woodland was more or less carbon neutral, with a net uptake estimated at only about 1 mol C m^?2 yr^?1. The annual net photosynthesis (gross primary production) was estimated at 32.2 mol m^?2 yr^?1.     

Carbon exchange of a mature,naturally regenerated pine forest in north Florida

We used eddy covariance and biomass measurements to quantify the carbon (C) dynamics of a naturally regenerated longleaf pine/slash pine flatwoods ecosystem in north Florida for 4 years, July 2000 to June 2002 and 2004 to 2005, to quantify how forest type, silvicultural intensity and environment influence stand‐level C balance. Precipitation over the study periods ranged from extreme drought (July 2000–June 2002) to above‐average precipitation (2004 and 2005). After photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD), vapor pressure deficit (VPD) >1.5 kPa and air temperature <10 °C were important constraints on daytime half‐hourly net CO₂ exchange (NEE_day) and reduced the magnitude of midday CO₂ exchange by >5 μmol CO₂ m^?2 s^?1. Analysis of water use efficiency indicated that stomatal closure at VPD>1.5 kPa moderated transpiration similarly in both drought and wet years. Night‐time exchange (NEE_night) was an exponential function of air temperature, with rates further modulated by soil moisture. Estimated annual net ecosystem production (NEP) was remarkably consistent among the four measurement years (range: 158–192 g C m^?2 yr^?1). In comparison, annual ecosystem C assimilation estimates from biomass measurements between 2000 and 2002 ranged from 77 to 136 g C m^?2 yr^?1. Understory fluxes accounted for approximately 25–35% of above‐canopy NEE over 24‐h periods, and 85% and 27% of whole‐ecosystem fluxes during night and midday (11:00–15:00 hours) periods, respectively. Concurrent measurements of a nearby intensively managed slash pine plantation showed that annual NEP was three to four times greater than that of the Austin Cary Memorial Forest, highlighting the importance of silviculture and management in regulating stand‐level C budgets.     

Holocene radiative forcing impact of northern peatland carbon accumulation and methane emissions

Throughout the Holocene, northern peatlands have both accumulated carbon and emitted methane. Their impact on climate radiative forcing has been the net of cooling (persistent CO₂ uptake) and warming (persistent CH₄ emission). We evaluated this by developing very simple Holocene peatland carbon flux trajectories, and using these as inputs to a simple atmospheric perturbation model. Flux trajectories are based on estimates of contemporary CH₄ flux (15–50 Tg CH₄ yr⁻¹), total accumulated peat C (250–450 Pg C), and peatland initiation dates. The contemporary perturbations to the atmosphere due to northern peatlands are an increase of ∼100 ppbv CH₄ and a decrease of ∼35 ppmv CO₂. The net radiative forcing impact northern peatlands is currently about −0.2 to −0.5 W m⁻² (a cooling). It is likely that peatlands initially caused a net warming of up to +0.1 W m⁻², but have been causing an increasing net cooling for the past 8000–11 000 years. A series of sensitivity simulations indicate that the current radiative forcing impact is determined primarily by the magnitude of the contemporary methane flux and the magnitude of the total C accumulated as peat, and that radiative forcing dynamics during the Holocene depended on flux trajectory, but the overall pattern was similar in all cases.     

How strong is the current carbon sequestration of an Atlantic blanket bog?

Although northern peatlands cover only 3% of the land surface, their thick peat deposits contain an estimated one‐third of the world's soil organic carbon (SOC). Under a changing climate the potential of peatlands to continue sequestering carbon is unknown. This paper presents an analysis of 6 years of total carbon balance of an almost intact Atlantic blanket bog in Glencar, County Kerry, Ireland. The three components of the measured carbon balance were: the land‐atmosphere fluxes of carbon dioxide (CO₂) and methane (CH₄) and the flux of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) exported in a stream draining the peatland. The 6 years C balance was computed from 6 years (2003–2008) of measurements of meteorological and eddy‐covariance CO₂ fluxes, periodic chamber measurements of CH₄ fluxes over 3.5 years, and 2 years of continuous DOC flux measurements. Over the 6 years, the mean annual carbon was ?29.7±30.6 (±1 SD) g C m^?2 yr^?1 with its components as follows: carbon in CO₂ was a sink of ?47.8±30.0 g C m^?2 yr^?1; carbon in CH₄ was a source of 4.1±0.5 g C m^?2 yr^?1 and the carbon exported as stream DOC was a source of 14.0±1.6 g C m^?2 yr^?1. For 2 out of the 6 years, the site was a source of carbon with the sum of CH₄ and DOC flux exceeding the carbon sequestered as CO₂. The average C balance for the 6 years corresponds to an average annual growth rate of the peatland surface of 1.3 mm yr^?1.     

Impact of past and present land‐management on the C‐balance of a grassland in the Swiss Alps

Grasslands cover about 40% of the ice‐free global terrestrial surface, but their quantitative importance in global carbon exchange with the atmosphere is still highly uncertain, and thus their potential for carbon sequestration remains speculative. Here, we report on CO₂ exchange of an extensively used mountain hay meadow and pasture in the Swiss pre‐Alps on high‐organic soils (7–45% C by mass) over a 3‐year period (18 May 2002–20 September 2005), including the European summer 2003 heat‐wave period. During all 3 years, the ecosystem was a net source of CO₂ (116–256 g C m^?2 yr^?1). Harvests and grazing cows (mostly via C export in milk) further increased these C losses, which were estimated at 355 g C m^?2 yr^?1 during 2003 (95% confidence interval 257–454 g C m^?2 yr^?1). Although annual carbon losses varied considerably among years, the CO₂ budget during summer 2003 was not very different from the other two summers. However, and much more importantly, the winter that followed the warm summer of 2003 observed a significantly higher carbon loss when there was snow (133±6 g C m^?2) than under comparable conditions during the other two winters (73±5 and 70±4 g C m^?2, respectively). The continued annual C losses can most likely be attributed to the long‐term effects of drainage and peat exploitation that began 119 years ago, with the last significant drainage activities during the Second World War around 1940. The most realistic estimate based on depth profiles of ash content after combustion suggests that there is an 500–910 g C m^?2 yr^?1 loss associated with the decomposition of organic matter. Our results clearly suggest that putting efforts into preserving still existing carbon stocks may be more successful than attempts to increase sequestration rates in such high‐organic mountain grassland soils.     

Carbon exchange of grazed pasture on a drained peat soil

Land‐use changes have contributed to increased atmospheric CO₂ concentrations. Conversion from natural peatlands to agricultural land has led to widespread subsidence of the peat surface caused by soil compaction and mineralization. To study the net ecosystem exchange of carbon (C) and the contribution of respiration to peat subsidence, eddy covariance measurements were made over pasture on a well‐developed, drained peat soil from 22 May 2002 to 21 May 2003. The depth to the water table fluctuated between 0.02 m in winter 2002 to 0.75 m during late summer and early autumn 2003. Peat soil moisture content varied between 0.6 and 0.7 m³ m^?3 until the water table dropped below 0.5 m, when moisture content reached 0.38 m³ m^?3. Neither depth to water table nor soil moisture was found to have an effect on the rate of night‐time respiration (ranging from 0.4–8.0 μmol CO₂ m^?2 s^?1 in winter and summer, respectively). Most of the variance in night‐time respiration was explained by changes in the 0.1 m soil temperature (r²=0.93). The highest values for daytime net ecosystem exchange were measured in September 2002, with a maximum of ?17.2 μmol CO₂ m^?2 s^?1. Grazing events and soil moisture deficiencies during a short period in summer reduced net CO₂ exchange. To establish an annual C balance for this ecosystem, non‐linear regression was used to model missing data. Annually integrated (CO₂) C exchange for this peat–pasture ecosystem was 45±500 kg C ha^?1 yr^?1. After including other C exchanges (methane emissions from cows and production of milk), the net annual C loss was 1061±500 kg C ha^?1 yr^?1.     

Diurnal, seasonal and annual variation in the net ecosystem CO2 exchange of a desert shrub community (Sarcocaulescent) in Baja California, Mexico

Estimates of net ecosystem exchange (NEE) of CO₂ have been measured on a variety of ecosystems world wide including grasslands, savannahs, boreal, pine, deciduous, Mediterranean and tropical rain forests as well as arctic tundra. While there have been numerous comparisons between net primary productivity of arid and semiarid grasslands and shrublands, notably lacking are estimates of NEE with a few exceptions. The objective of this study was to characterize the seasonal and annual carbon flux of a desert shrub ecosystem using the eddy covariance technique to determine the sensitivity of the system to the timing and varying amounts of precipitation. Measurements began in July of 2001, a year with 339 mm of rainfall, considerably above the long‐term average of 174 mm and preceded by 2 years of below average rainfall (50–62 mm). Over the 2 complete years of measurements, precipitation was 147 and 197 mm in 2002 and 2003, respectively. In all years, the majority of the precipitation fell between August and September. The site was a sink of ?39 g C m^?2 yr^?1 in 2002 with a relatively strong uptake in the early part of the year and reduced uptake after the suboptimal rainfall in September. This contrasts with 2003 when the ecosystem took up ?52 g C m^?2 yr^?1 concentrated in the fall after significant rain in August and September. Likely, extremely low rainfall years would result in a carbon loss while a strengthening of the typical winter secondary peak in precipitation (notably absent in the 2 years of measurements) may extend uptake into the spring resulting in more carbon accumulation. The system appears to be buffered against variations in annual rainfall attributed to water storage in the stems and roots.     

Carbon sequestration and ecosystem respiration for 4 years in a Scots pine forest

The net exchange of CO₂ (NEE) between a Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) forest ecosystem in eastern Finland and the atmosphere was measured continuously by the eddy covariance (EC) technique over 4 years (1999–2002). The annual temperature coefficient (Q₁₀) of ecosystem respiration (R) for these years, respectively, was 2.32, 2.66, 2.73 and 2.69. The light‐saturated rate of photosynthesis (A_max) was highest in July or August, with an annual average A_max of 10.9, 14.6, 15.3 and 17.1 μmol m^?2 s^?1 in the 4 years, respectively. There was obvious seasonality in NEE, R and gross primary production (GPP), exhibiting a similar pattern to photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) and air temperature. The integrated daily NEE ranged from 2.59 to ?4.97 g C m^?2 day^?1 in 1999, from 2.70 to ?4.72 in 2000, from 2.61 to ?4.71 in 2001 and from 5.27 to ?4.88 in 2002. The maximum net C uptake occurred in July, with the exception of 2000, when it was in June. The interannual variation in ecosystem C flux was pronounced. The length of the growing season, based on net C uptake, was 179, 170, 175 and 176 days in 1999–2002, respectively, and annual net C sequestration was 152, 101, 172 and 205 g C m^?2 yr^?1. It is estimated that ecosystem respiration contributed 615, 591, 752 and 879 g C m^?2 yr^?1 to the NEE in these years, leading to an annual GPP of ?768, ?692, ?924 and ?1084 g C m^?2 yr^?1. It is concluded that temperature and PAR were the main determinants of the ecosystem CO₂ flux. Interannual variations in net C sequestration are predominantly controlled by average air temperature and integrated radiation in spring and summer. Four years of EC data indicate that boreal Scots pine forest ecosystem in eastern Finland acts as a relatively powerful carbon sink. Carbon sequestration may benefit from warmer climatic conditions.     

The European carbon balance. Part 2: croplands

We estimated the long‐term carbon balance [net biome production (NBP)] of European (EU‐25) croplands and its component fluxes, over the last two decades. Net primary production (NPP) estimates, from different data sources ranged between 490 and 846 gC m^?2 yr^?1, and mostly reflect uncertainties in allocation, and in cropland area when using yield statistics. Inventories of soil C change over arable lands may be the most reliable source of information on NBP, but inventories lack full and harmonized coverage of EU‐25. From a compilation of inventories we infer a mean loss of soil C amounting to 17 g m^?2 yr^?1. In addition, three process‐based models, driven by historical climate and evolving agricultural technology, estimate a small sink of 15 g C m^?2 yr^?1 or a small source of 7.6 g C m^?2 yr^?1. Neither the soil C inventory data, nor the process model results support the previous European‐scale NBP estimate by Janssens and colleagues of a large soil C loss of 90 ± 50 gC m^?2 yr^?1. Discrepancy between measured and modeled NBP is caused by erosion which is not inventoried, and the burning of harvest residues which is not modeled. When correcting the inventory NBP for the erosion flux, and the modeled NBP for agricultural fire losses, the discrepancy is reduced, and cropland NBP ranges between ?8.3 ± 13 and ?13 ± 33 g C m^?2 yr^?1 from the mean of the models and inventories, respectively. The mean nitrous oxide (N₂O) flux estimates ranges between 32 and 37 g C Eq m^?2 yr^?1, which nearly doubles the CO₂ losses. European croplands act as small CH₄ sink of 3.3 g C Eq m^?2 yr^?1. Considering ecosystem CO₂, N₂O and CH₄ fluxes provides for the net greenhouse gas balance a net source of 42–47 g C Eq m^?2 yr^?1. Intensifying agriculture in Eastern Europe to the same level Western Europe amounts is expected to result in a near doubling of the N₂O emissions in Eastern Europe. N₂O emissions will then become the main source of concern for the impact of European agriculture on climate.     

Dissolved carbon leaching from soil is a crucial component of the net ecosystem carbon balance

Estimates of carbon leaching losses from different land use systems are few and their contribution to the net ecosystem carbon balance is uncertain. We investigated leaching of dissolved organic carbon (DOC), dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC), and dissolved methane (CH₄), at forests, grasslands, and croplands across Europe. Biogenic contributions to DIC were estimated by means of its δ¹³C signature. Leaching of biogenic DIC was 8.3±4.9 g m^?2 yr^?1 for forests, 24.1±7.2 g m^?2 yr^?1 for grasslands, and 14.6±4.8 g m^?2 yr^?1 for croplands. DOC leaching equalled 3.5±1.3 g m^?2 yr^?1 for forests, 5.3±2.0 g m^?2 yr^?1 for grasslands, and 4.1±1.3 g m^?2 yr^?1 for croplands. The average flux of total biogenic carbon across land use systems was 19.4±4.0 g C m^?2 yr^?1. Production of DOC in topsoils was positively related to their C/N ratio and DOC retention in subsoils was inversely related to the ratio of organic carbon to iron plus aluminium (hydr)oxides. Partial pressures of CO₂ in soil air and soil pH determined DIC concentrations and fluxes, but soil solutions were often supersaturated with DIC relative to soil air CO₂. Leaching losses of biogenic carbon (DOC plus biogenic DIC) from grasslands equalled 5–98% (median: 22%) of net ecosystem exchange (NEE) plus carbon inputs with fertilization minus carbon removal with harvest. Carbon leaching increased the net losses from cropland soils by 24–105% (median: 25%). For the majority of forest sites, leaching hardly affected actual net ecosystem carbon balances because of the small solubility of CO₂ in acidic forest soil solutions and large NEE. Leaching of CH₄ proved to be insignificant compared with other fluxes of carbon. Overall, our results show that leaching losses are particularly important for the carbon balance of agricultural systems.     

Seasonal variations of CO2 and water vapour exchange rates over a temperate deciduous forest

Long-term and direct measurements of CO₂ and water vapour exchange are needed over forested ecosystems to determine their net annual fluxes of carbon dioxide and water. Such measurements are also needed to parameterize and test biogeochemical, ecological and hydrological assessment models. Responding to this need, eddy covariance measurements of CO₂ and water vapour were made ever a deciduous forest growing near Oak Ridge, TN, between April 1993 and April 1994. Periodic measurements were made of leaf area index, stomatal resistance, soil moisture and pre-dawn leaf water potential to characterize the gas exchange capacity of the canopy. Four factors had a disproportionate influence on the seasonal variation of CO₂ flux densities. These factors were photon flux densities (during the growing season), temperature (during the dormant season), leaf area index and the occurrence of drought The drought period occurred during the peak of the growing season and caused a significant decline in daily and hourly CO₂ flux densities, relative to observations over the stand when soil moisture was plentiful. The annual net uptake of carbon was calculated by integrating flux measurements and filling missing and spurious data with the relations obtained between measured CO₂ fluxes and environmental forcing variables. The net flux of carbon for the period between April 1993 and April 1994 was -525 g C m^?2 y^?1. This value represents a net flux of carbon from the atmosphere and into the forest. The net annual carbon exchange of this southern temperate broadleaved forest exceeded values measured over a northern temperate forest (which experiences a shorter growing season and has less leaf area) by 200 g C m^?2 y^?1 (cf. Wofsy et al 1993). The seasonal variation of canopy evaporation (latent heat flux) was controlled mostly by changes in leaf area and net radiation. A strong depression in evaporation rates was not observed during the drought Over a broadleaved forest large vapour pressure deficits promote evaporation and trees in a mixed stand are able to tap a variety of deep and shallow water sources.     

Spring warming and carbon dioxide exchange over low Arctic tundra in central Canada

Tundra‐atmosphere exchanges of carbon dioxide (CO₂) and water vapour were measured near Daring Lake, Northwest Territories in the Canadian Low Arctic for 3 years, 2004–2006. The measurement period spanned late‐winter until the end of the growing period. Mean temperatures during the measurement period varied from about 2 °C less than historical average in 2004 and 2005 to 2 °C greater in 2006. Much of the added warmth in 2006 occurred at the beginning of the study, when snow melt occurred 3 weeks earlier than in the other years. Total precipitation in 2006 (163 mm) was more than double that of the driest year, 2004 (71 mm). The tundra was a net sink for CO₂ carbon in all years. Mid‐summer net ecosystem exchange of CO₂ (NEE) achieved maximum values of ?1.3 g C m^?2 day^?1 (2004) to ?1.8 g C m^?2 day^?1 (2006). Accumulated NEE values over the 109‐day period were ?32,?51 and ?61 g C m^?2 in 2004, 2005 and 2006, respectively. The larger CO₂ uptake in 2006 was attributed to the early spring coupled with warmer air and soil conditions. In 2004, CO₂ uptake was limited by the shorter growing season and mid‐summer dryness, which likely reduced ecosystem productivity. Seasonal total evapotranspiration (ET) ranged from 130 mm (2004) to 181 mm (2006) and varied in accordance with the precipitation received and with the timing of snow melt. Maximum daily ET rates ranged from 2.3 to 2.7 mm day^?1, occurring in mid July. Ecosystem water use efficiency (WUE_eco) varied slightly between years, ranging from 2.2 in the driest year to 2.5 in the year with intermediate rainfall amounts. In the wettest year, increased soil evaporation may have contributed to a lower WUE_eco (2.3). We speculate that most, if not all, of the modest growing season CO₂ sink measured at this site could be lost due to fall and winter respiration leading to the tundra being a net CO₂ source or CO₂ neutral on an annual basis. However, this hypothesis is untested as yet.     

Net ecosystem productivity of boreal jack pine stands regenerating from clearcutting under current and future climates

Life cycle analysis of climate and disturbance effects on forest net ecosystem productivity (NEP) is necessary to assess changes in forest carbon (C) stocks under current or future climates. Ecosystem models used in such assessments need to undergo well-constrained tests of their hypotheses for climate and disturbance effects on the processes that determine CO₂ exchange between forests and the atmosphere. We tested the ability of the model ecosys to simulate diurnal changes in CO₂ fluxes under changing air temperatures (T_a) and soil water contents during forest regeneration with eddy covariance measurements over boreal jack pine (Pinus banksiana) stands along a postclearcut chronosequence. Model hypotheses for hydraulic and nutrient constraints on CO₂ fixation allowed ecosys to simulate the recovery of C cycling during the transition of boreal jack pine stands from C sources following clearcutting (NEP from −150 to −200 g C m⁻² yr⁻¹) to C sinks at maturity (NEP from 20 to 80 g C m⁻² yr⁻¹) with large interannual variability. Over a 126-year logging cycle, annualized NEP, C harvest, and net biome productivity (NBP=NEP–harvest removals) of boreal jack pine averaged 47, 33 and 14 g C m⁻² yr⁻¹. Under an IPCC SRES climate change scenario, rising T_a exacerbated hydraulic constraints that adversely affected NEP of boreal jack pine after 75 years. These adverse effects were avoided in the model by replacing the boreal jack pine ecotype with one adapted to warmer T_a. This replacement raised annualized NEP, C harvest, and NBP to 81, 56 and 25 g C m⁻² yr⁻¹ during a 126-year logging cycle under the same climate change scenario.     

Net ecosystem carbon dioxide exchange over grazed steppe in central Mongolia

This paper presents results of 1 year (from March 25, 2003 to March 24, 2004, 366 days) of continuous measurements of net ecosystem CO₂ exchange (NEE) above a steppe in Mongolia using the eddy covariance technique. The steppe, typical of central Mongolia, is dominated by C₃ plants adapted to the continental climate. The following two questions are addressed: (1) how do NEE and its components: gross ecosystem production (GEP) and total ecosystem respiration (R_eco) vary seasonally? (2) how do NEE, GEP, and R_eco respond to biotic and abiotic factors? The hourly minimal NEE and the hourly maximal R_eco were −3.6 and 1.2 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹, respectively (negative values denoting net carbon uptake by the canopy from the atmosphere). Peak daily sums of NEE, GEP, and R_eco were −2.3, 3.5, and 1.5 g C m⁻² day⁻¹, respectively. The annual sums of GEP, R_eco, and NEE were 179, 138, and −41 g C m⁻², respectively. The carbon removal by sheep was estimated to range between 10 and 82 g C m⁻² yr⁻¹ using four different approaches. Including these estimates in the overall carbon budget yielded net ecosystem productivity of −23 to +20 g C m⁻² yr⁻¹. Thus, within the remaining experimental uncertainty the carbon budget at this steppe site can be considered to be balanced. For the growing period (from April 23 to October 21, 2003), 26% and 53% of the variation in daily NEE and GEP, respectively, could be explained by the changes in leaf area index. Seasonality of GEP, R_eco, and NEE was closely associated with precipitation, especially in the peak growing season when GEP and R_eco were largest. Water stress was observed in late July to early August, which switched the steppe from a carbon sink to a carbon source. For the entire growing period, the light response curves of daytime NEE showed a rather low apparent quantum yield (α=−0.0047 μmol CO₂ μmol⁻¹ photons of photosynthetically active radiation). However, the α values varied with air temperature (T_a), vapor pressure deficit, and soil water content.     

Mature semiarid chaparral ecosystems can be a significant sink for atmospheric carbon dioxide

Carbon flux in arid and semiarid area shrublands, especially in old‐growth shrub ecosystems, has been rarely studied using eddy covariance techniques. In this study, eddy covariance measurements over a 100‐year old‐growth chamise‐dominated chaparral shrub ecosystem were conducted for 7 years from 1996 to 2003. A carbon sink, from −96 to −155 g C m⁻² yr⁻¹, was determined under normal weather conditions, while a weak sink of −18 g C m⁻² yr⁻¹ and a strong source of 207 g C m⁻² yr⁻¹ were observed as a consequence of a severe drought. The annual sink strength of carbon in the 7‐year measurement period was −52 g C m⁻² yr⁻¹. The results from our study indicate that, in contrast to previous thought, the old‐growth chaparral shrub ecosystem can be a significant sink of carbon under normal weather conditions and, therefore, be an important component of the global carbon budget.     

Diurnal and seasonal variation in methane emissions in a northern Canadian peatland measured by eddy covariance

Eddy covariance measurements of methane (CH₄) net flux were made in a boreal fen, typical of the most abundant peatlands in western Canada during May–September 2007. The objectives of this study were to determine: (i) the magnitude of diurnal and seasonal variation in CH₄ net flux, (ii) the relationship between the temporally varying flux rates and associated changes in controlling biotic and abiotic factors, and (iii) the contribution of CH₄ emission to the ecosystem growing season carbon budget. There was significant diurnal variation in CH₄ emission during the peak of the growing season that was strongly correlated with associated changes in solar radiation, latent heat flux, air temperature and ecosystem conductance to water vapor. During days 181–215, nighttime average CH₄ efflux was only 47% of the average midday values. The peak value for daily average CH₄ emission rate was approximately 80 nmol m^?2 s^?1 (4.6 mg CH₄ m^?2 h^?1), and seasonal variation in CH₄ flux was strongly correlated with changes in soil temperature. Integrated over the entire measurement period [days 144–269 (late May–late September)], the total CH₄ emission was 3.2 g CH₄ m^?2, which was quite low relative to other wetland ecosystems and to the simultaneous high rate of ecosystem net CO₂ sequestration that was measured (18.1 mol CO₂ m^?2 or 217 g C m^?2). We estimate that the negative radiative forcing (cooling) associated with net carbon storage over the life of the peatland (approximately 2200 years) was at least twice the value of positive radiative forcing (warming) caused by net CH₄ emission over the last 50 years.     

Carbon dioxide exchange in a high-arctic fen estimated by eddy covariance measurements and modelling

The high-arctic environment is an environment where the consequences of global warming may be significant. In this paper we report on findings on carbon dioxide and water vapour fluxes above a sedge-dominated fen at Zackenberg (74°28′N, 20°34′ W) in The National Park of North and East Greenland. Eddy covariance measurements were initiated at the start of the growing season and terminated shortly before its end lasting 45 days. The net CO₂ flux during daytime reaches a high of 10 μmol m^–2s^–1, and around the summer solstice, net CO₂ assimilation occurred at midnight, resulting in net carbon gain during the night. The measured carbon dioxide fluxes compare well to estimates based on the photosynthesis model by Collatz et al. (1991 ). The total growing-season net ecosystem CO₂ exchange was estimated to be 96 g C m^–2 based on the carbon dioxide model and micrometeorological data. Finally, the combined CO₂ assimilation and soil respiration models are used for examining the dependence of the carbon dioxide budget on temperature. The ecosystem is found to function optimally given the present temperature conditions whereas either an increase or a decrease in temperature would reduce the ecosystem CO₂ accumulation. An increase in temperature by 5 °C would turn the ecosystem into a carbon dioxide source.     

CO2 exchange in an organic field growing barley or grass in eastern Finland

The CO₂ dynamics were measured in an organic soil in eastern Finland during the growing season and wintertime, and the annual CO₂ balance was calculated for plots where barley or grass was grown. During the summer, the CO₂ dynamics were measured by transparent and opaque chambers using a portable infrared gas analyser for the CO₂ analyses. During the winter, the CO₂ release was measured by opaque chambers analysing the samples in the laboratory with a gas chromatograph. Statistical response functions for CO₂ dynamics were constructed to evaluate the annual CO₂ exchange from the climatic data. The net CO₂ exchange was calculated for every hour in the snow‐free season. The carbon balance varied extensively depending on the weather conditions, and type and phenology of vegetation. During the growing season, the grassland was a net source while the barley field was a net sink for CO₂. However, both soils were net sources for CO₂ when autumn, winter and spring were included also. The annual CO₂ emissions from the grassland and barley soil were 750 g CO₂‐C m^?2 and 400 g CO₂‐C m^?2, respectively. The carbon accumulated in root and shoot biomass during the growing season was 330 g m^?2 for grass and 520 g m^?2 for barley. The C in the aboveground plant biomass ranged from 43 to 47% of the carbon fixed in photosynthesis (P_G) and the proportion of C in the root biomass was 10% of the carbon fixed in photosynthesis. The bare soils had 10–60% higher net CO₂ emission than the vegetated soils. These results indicate that the carbon balance of organic soils is affected by the characteristics of the prevailing plant cover. The dry summer of 1997 may have limited the growth of grass in the late summer thus reducing photosynthesis, which could be one reason for the high CO₂ release from this grass field.