Relative importance of predators and parasitoids for cereal aphid control

Field experiments with manipulations of natural enemies of plant-feeding insects may show how a diverse enemy group ensures an important ecosystem function such as naturally occurring biological pest control. We studied cereal aphid populations in winter wheat under experimentally reduced densities of: (i) ground-dwelling generalist predators (mostly spiders, carabid and staphylinid beetles); (ii) flying predators (coccinellid beetles, syrphid flies, gall midges, etc.) and parasitoids (aphidiid wasps), and a combination of (i) and (ii), compared with open controls. Aphid populations were 18% higher at reduced densities of ground-dwelling predators, 70% higher when flying predators and parasitoids were removed, and 172% higher on the removal of both enemy groups. Parasitoid wasps probably had the strongest effect, as flying predators occurred only in negligible densities. The great importance of parasitism is a new finding for aphid control in cereal fields. In conclusion, a more detailed knowledge of the mechanisms of natural pest control would help to develop environmentally sound crop management with reduced pesticide applications.     

麦蚜寄生蜂和捕食性天敌种群对景观复杂性的响应

农业景观结构影响昆虫的物种组成与多样性,本文选择复杂景观和简单景观的麦田景观为研究对象,研究了不同麦田景观结构对麦蚜天敌种群的影响。在简单与复杂两种景观下,分析了麦蚜寄生蜂和捕食性天敌的迁入时间、迁入量、种群增长率及种群密度之间的差异。结果表明:复杂景观中麦蚜寄生蜂和捕食性天敌的物种多样性较高,复杂景观下寄生蜂的迁入量高于简单景观下寄生蜂的迁入量。景观复杂性同样影响捕食性天敌的迁入时间,且捕食性天敌在复杂景观下迁入量均高于简单景观,而且存在显著性差异。两种景观中寄生蜂和捕食性天敌种群增长速率与最大种群密度均存在显著性差异。     

Contact toxicity of some chemical and biological pesticides to several insect parasitoids and predators

Eight pesticides; methyl parathion, malathion (organo-phosphates), toxaphene (chlorinated hydrocarbon), carbaryl (carbamate), pyrethrin (plant derivative),Bacillus thuringiensis, nuclear polyhedrosis virus (Heliothis) (microbial insecticides), and 2,4-DB (postemergence herbicide) were evaluated at the minimum recommended field dose and reduced dosages for contact toxicity toBrachymeria intermedia (Hymenoptera: Chalcididae), Campoletis sonorensis (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae), Chelonus blackburni (Hymenoptera: Braconidae), Meteorus leviventris (Braconidae), Voria ruralis (Diptera: tachninidae), Chrysopa carnea (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae), andHippodamia convergens (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae). At minimum field dosages, percent mortality of parasitoids and predators was>27%, for the chemical insecticides. Mortality from pyrethrin was <31%, in all cases and 0% for 5 of the 8 species tested. Mortality of parasitoids and predators exposed toB. thuringiens is and NPV was<4% while mortality from 2,4-DB was<7%. The toxicity of chemical insecticides to parasitoids and predators at reduced dosages in increasing order of toxicity was malathion > carbaryl > toxaphene > methyl parathion.     

Prey or host searching behavior that leads to a sigmoid functional response in invertebrate predators and parasitoids

Invertebrate predators and parasitoids have long been characterized as having a hyperbolic (Type 2) functional response. Modifications were made to Holling's sand paper disc experiment which consisted of limiting the initial period of search during which a host must be contacted. Failure to contact a host during this initial period causes the predator to emigrate from the search area. The modification generated a sigmoid (Type 3) functional response. This response resulted from the low probability of encountering a host during the initial period of search at low host densities in the time allotted. A limited period of search has been found in several insect parasitoids. Such a strategy would minimize the time (energy) spent per offspring produced by minimizing the time invested in searching microhabitats in which hosts are scarce or absent.     

Combining pheromone-baited and food-baited traps for insect pest control: Effects of additional control by parasitoids

Two age-structured population dynamic models are analyzed in which pheromone-baited trapping and food-baited trapping are used simultaneously to eradicate an insect pest. The pest species is assumed to be under partial control by a host-specific parasitoid species. The two models assume that density-dependent population regulation is accomplished either by host larval competition or by means of oviposition interference among the parasitoids. The two trap types interact in a positive synergistic manner and this combination appears to be very promising as a useful combination of pest control methods. Several features of the system are examined; the feature which appears to cause the greatest problem is the possibility of the parasitoids being attracted to the pheromone or the food traps. In either case, the degree of attraction does not have to be very great to undermine the control effort. It is seen that food trapping becomes indispensible if host pheromone is used by the parasitoids as a host-locating kairomone. If odor in the food traps is used by the parasitoids as kairomone, then the situation appears more optimistic, as the reduction in efficiency of the food traps appears much less than with the pheromone traps when pheromone acts as kairomone.     

Survey traps for parasitoids, and coccinellid predators of the citrus blackfly, Aleurocanthus woglumi

The attractiveness of sticky traps of eight colors for two parasitoids Amitus hesperidum Silverstri and Prospaltella opulenta Silvestri, and seven species of coccinellid predators of the citrus blackfly, Aleurocanthus woglumi Ashby (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae) was evaluated in insectory and field tests.Yellow traps captured significantly more parasitoids and coccinellids than other colors tested; captures were greatest in traps placed in the lower half of citrus trees. These traps can be used to survey for and monitor the population trends of the citrus blackfly and its natural enemies.

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Résumé Nous avons évalué l'attraction de Amitus hesperidum Silvestri et Prospaltella opulenta Silvestri, parasitoïdes d'Aleurocanthus woglumi Ashby et de 7 espèces de Coccinellides prédatrices de cette espèce, par des pièges à glu de 8 couleurs différentes (jaune, orange, rouge, bleu, vert, noir, blanc et transparent).Les pièges jaunes capturent significativement plus de parasitoïdes et de coccinelles que les autres couleurs; les captures sont plus importantes avec des pièges placés dans la moitié inférieure des citronniers. Ces pièges peuvent être utilisés pour suivre et contrôler l'évolution des populations d'A. woglumi et de ses parasitoïdes et coccinelles prédatrices.

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Fla. Agr. Exp. Stn. J. Ser. No. 2271     

Changes in feeding behaviour of the larvae of the damselfly Enallagma cyathigerum in response to stimuli from predators

1. The feeding rates, diet composition and diel periodicity in feeding activity among larvae of the damselfly Enallagma cyathigerum Charp., exposed to chemical, visual and mechanical stimuli from the predators Ranatra linearis (L.), Notonecta glauca L. and Rutilus rutilus (L.) were investigated.
2. In response to chemical cues produced by all the predator species, larvae reduced their rate of feeding significantly (especially on large, sedentary prey).
3. Small larvae reacted more strongly than large ones to the kairomone produced by N. glauca.
4. The fish kairomone induced a reduction in feeding activity during daylight hours only. This reaction was more intense than the reaction to non-chemical cues.
5. Observed predator-induced changes in diet composition, caused directly by reduced activity during feeding, are discussed as an antipredator behaviour of damselfly larvae.     

Escape and alerting responses by Balearic lizards (Podarcis lilfordi) to movement and turning direction by nearby predators

Escape theory predicts that prey monitoring an approaching predator delay escape until predation risk outweighs costs of fleeing. However, if a predator is not detected until it is closer than the optimal flight initiation distance (FID = distance between predator and prey when escape begins), escape should begin immediately. Similarly, if a change in a nearby predator’s behavior indicates increased risk, the optimal FID increases, sometimes inducing immediate escape. If a predator that has been standing immobile near a prey suddenly turns toward the prey, greater risk is implied than if the predator turns away. If the immobile predator suddenly moves its foot without turning, it might be launching an attack. Therefore, we predicted that frequency of fleeing and preparation to flee are greater when a predator turns toward than away from prey and that frequency of fleeing when a predator suddenly moves decreases as distance between predator and prey increases. We verified these predictions in the Balearic lizard Podarcis lilfordi in field experiments in which an investigator simulated the predator. Lizards fled and performed alerting responses indicating readiness to flee more frequently when the predator turned toward than away from them, and fled more frequently the nearer the predator.     

Performance of moth larvae on birch in relation to altitude, climate, host quality and parasitoids

We studied topographical and year-to-year variation in the performance (pupal weights, survival) and larval parasitism of Epirrita autumnata larvae feeding on mountain birch in northernmost Finland in 1993–1996. We found differences in both food plant quality and parasitism between sites ranging from 80 m to 320 m above sea level. Variation in food plant quality had particularly marked effects on larval survival. The advanced phenology of the birches in relation to the start of the larval period reduced pupal weights. Parasitism rates were different between years and between sites. The clearest site differences were in the proportions of different parasitoid species: Eulophus larvarum was most abundant at the lowest-altitude sites, and Cotesia jucunda at the highest. Differences in the performance of E. autumnata were related to temperature conditions: at higher temperatures, survival and the egg production index were lower, and larval parasitism was higher than at lower temperatures. The higher parasitism at higher temperatures was probably due to greater parasitoid activity during warmer days. In the comparison of different sources of spatial and annual variation in the performance of E. autumnata, the most important factor appeared to be egg mortality related to minimum winter temperature, followed by parasitism and, finally, the variation in food plant quality. If, as predicted, the climate gradually warms up, the effects of warmer summers on the outbreaks of E. autumnata suggest a decrease in outbreak intensity. Received: 4 January 1999 / Accepted: 22 March 1999     

Relationship of Heliothis zea predators, parasitoids and entomopathogens to canopy development in soybean as affected by Heterodera glycines and weeds

The influence of canopy development in soybean on the survival of corn earworm, Heliothis zea (Boddie) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), egg and larval stages and population dynamics of arthropod fauna were evaluated in field trials during 1986–88 in eastern North Carolina. Soybean canopy size decreased as soybean cyst nematode, Heterodera glycines Ichinohe (Nematoda: Heteroderidae), initial population densities increased. Plant species composition of the soybean canopy was affected by weed population densities. Mortality of H. zea larvae due to parasitism and infection with entomopathogens was greater in closed canopy and (or) weedy soybeans than in very open and (or) weed free soybeans. Predation and parasitism of corn earworm eggs were similar across nematode and weed density treatments. Natural enemy populations increased to highest levels during July in closed canopy and (or) weedy soybeans, coinciding with availability of largest prey population reservoirs. A delay in colonization of very open and (or) weed free soybeans by beneficial arthropods until mid to late August allowed greater H. zea larval survival than in closed canopy and (or) weedy soybeans. Arthropod species richness was generally greatest in closed canopy and (or) weedy soybeans during mid to late July, with differences becoming nonsignificant in August and early September. Mean and maximum ambient temperatures were higher and relative humidities lower in open canopy than in closed canopy plots. These conditions were less favorable for development of pathogens and natural enemies.     

Responses of pest and non-pest Colias butterfly larvae to intraspecific variation in leaf nitrogen and water content

Summary This study examined the effects of intraspecific variation in leaf nitrogen and water content on the growth, consumption, conversion efficiency and nitrogen use of Colias butterfly larvae. Pest and non-pest Colias philodice eriphyle larvae and Colias eurytheme larvae were fed field-collected alfalfa (Medicago sativa) and vetch (Vicia americana) leaves in laboratory experiments. In all treatments, at least one indicator of larval growth performance was positively correlated with leaf nitrogen content, which supports the view that nitrogen is a limiting nutrient for larval growth. The benefits associated with eating leaves with high nitrogen content included higher growth rates, conversion efficiencies, nitrogen accumulation rates and larval nitrogen contents. Over the ranges examined in this study, variation in leaf nitrogen content (2.8–7.0% dry wt) affected larval growth more than variation in leaf water content (66–79% fresh wt). Pest and non-pest C. p. eriphyle responded alike to variation in the leaf nitrogen content of vetch, but there were differences between populations on alfalfa. Pest larvae were more sensitive to variation in leaf water content than non-pest larve. The differences between these populations may be due to specific adaptations resulting from the shift to alfala by pest Colias. It is suggested that herbivores' responses to intraspecific variation in leaf nitrogen content may have important consequences for the evolution of plant defenses and nutrient allocation patterns, and for agricultural pest management.     

Response of natural populations of predators and parasitoids to artificially induced volatile emissions in maize plants (Zea mays L.)

1 In response to herbivore attack, maize plants (Zea mays L.) emit a specific blend of induced volatiles. Artificial damage and subsequent treatment of the damaged site with caterpillar regurgitant induces the same response. The induced volatile chemicals are known to be highly attractive to several parasitoids of herbivores in laboratory bioassays, but very limited information is available on how the plant odours affect entomophagous insects in the field. 2 Experiments were conducted to determine if induced maize volatiles attract parasitic and predatory insects under field conditions and whether they affect their spatial distribution. 3 In a preliminary field experiment with blue sticky traps near treated (damaged and treated with caterpillar regurgitant) and healthy plants, more entomophagous insects (total number of parasitic Hymenoptera, Anthocoridae and Syrphidae) were trapped near treated plants than near healthy plants. 4 In a second experiment, attraction to the induced volatiles was monitored with sticky traps placed next to treated and healthy maize plants in a regular maize field. No significant differences between the two treatments were found, but significantly more insects (parasitic wasps, thrips and anthocorid bugs) were trapped near to the top of plants than on traps placed near the mid‐stem. Displacement of these insect groups within the field seemed to occur principally over the canopy, but under severe weather conditions they travelled lower in the canopy. 5 In a third experiment, the effect of induced maize odours on the spatial distribution of predators and parasitoids was investigated by placing sticky traps at different distances from healthy and treated plants. The higher catches of parasitoids near treated plants and the increased presence of these insects on the downwind side of treated plants support the notion that herbivore‐induced maize odours attract natural enemies of maize pests in the field.     

Native and introduced range surveys for egg parasitoids of Agrilus auroguttatus,an invasive pest of native oaks in California

The invasive goldspotted oak borer, Agrilus auroguttatus Schaeffer (Coleoptera: Buprestidae), has caused extensive mortality to indigenous oaks in southern California. This woodborer is native to southern Arizona where low population densities may, in part, be due to the presence of co-evolved natural enemies. Surveys were conducted in Arizona and California from June to August 2013 by deploying sentinel egg masses in an attempt to attract, collect and identify potential egg parasitoids of this beetle that could be used for a classical biological control programme in California. In total, 18,052 A. auroguttatus eggs were deployed throughout the native and introduced range. Parasitoids did not attack any eggs deployed in Arizona or California. The inability to detect egg parasitoids could be explained by the following: (1) host-specific egg parasitoids of A. auroguttatus do not exist, (2) surveying time did not coincide with peak activity of egg parasitoids or (3) surveying methods were insufficient at detecting egg parasitoids.     

Some experimental evidence for the survival value of the rootpiercing habits of Mansonia larvae (Culicidae) to predators

Summary Mansonia larvae pierce Pistia plants with their breathing syphons, and are much less motile than most mosquito larvae. In clear water with no plants present they are eaten as readily by predators (water bugs, beetle larvae, fish) as Culex fatigans. If the Mansonia are attached to Pistia they are less frequently eaten.

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Zusammenfassung Mansonia-Larven besitzen Atemsiphonen, die geeignet sind, unter Wasser Pflanzengewebe anzubohren (besonders Pistia stratiotes). Die Larven atmen Luft, die sie aus den Pflanzen beziehen. Diese Larven sind verhältnismäßig unbeweglich. Mansonia- und Culex fatigans-Larven sind den Nachstellungen folgender Räuber ausgesetzt: Erwachsenen Wanzen von Diplonychus sp., Larven der Käfergattung Cybister, Jungfischen der Gattung Eleotris (Gobiidae).Im klarem, pflanzenfreien Wasser werden beide Arten Mückenlarven in annähernd gleicher Anzahl gefressen. Das zeigt, daß Mansonia nicht geschmackswidrig ist.Wenn die Mansonia an Pistia angeheftet sind, werden sie in viel geringerer Anzahl gefressen als Culex, vorausgesetzt, daß beide Arten vorhanden sind. Wenn keine Culex zur Verfügung stehen, fressen Diplonychus und Cybister nur wenige der angehefteten Mansonia, während Eleotris seine Nachstellungen verstärkt.Daraus wird gefolgert, daß die durch diese Lebensweise gewonnene Unbeweglichkeit für Mansonia vorteilhaft ist und eine der Ursachen darstellen könnte, daß sie in Neu Guinea so häufig ist.

     

Carbon and nitrogen transfer from a desert stream to riparian predators

Adult aquatic insects emerging from streams may be a significant source of energy for terrestrial predators inhabiting riparian zones. In this study, we use natural abundance delta(13)C and delta(15)N values and an isotopic (15)N tracer addition to quantify the flow of carbon and nitrogen from aquatic to terrestrial food webs via emerging aquatic insects. We continuously dripped labeled (15)N-NH(4) for 6 weeks into Sycamore Creek, a Sonoran desert stream in the Tonto National Forest (central Arizona) and traced the flow of tracer (15)N from the stream into spiders living in the riparian zone. After correcting for natural abundance delta(15)N, we used isotopic mixing models to calculate the proportion of (15)N from emerging aquatic insects incorporated into spider biomass. Natural abundance delta(13)C values indicate that orb-web weaving spiders inhabiting riparian vegetation along the stream channel obtain almost 100% of their carbon from instream sources, whereas ground-dwelling hunting spiders obtain on average 68% of their carbon from instream sources. During the 6-week period of the (15)N tracer addition, orb-web weaving spiders obtained on average 39% of their nitrogen from emerging aquatic insects, whereas spider species hunting on the ground obtained on average 25% of their nitrogen from emerging aquatic insects. To determine if stream subsidies might be influencing the spatial distribution of terrestrial predators, we measured the biomass, abundance and diversity of spiders along a gradient from the active stream channel to a distance of 50 m into the upland using pitfall traps and timed sweep net samples. Spider abundance, biomass and richness were highest within the active stream channel but decreased more than three-fold 25 m from the wetted stream margin. Changes in structural complexity of vegetation, ground cover or terrestrial prey abundance could not account for patterns in spider distributions, however nutrient and energy subsidies from the stream could explain elevated spider numbers and richness within the active stream channel and riparian zone of Sycamore Creek.     

Safe and fit genetically modified insects for pest control: from lab to field applications

Insect transgenesis is continuously being improved to increase the efficacy of population suppression and replacement strategies directed to the control of insect species of economic and sanitary interest. An essential prerequisite for the success of both pest control applications is that the fitness of the transformant individuals is not impaired, so that, once released in the field, they can efficiently compete with or even out-compete their wild-type counterparts for matings in order to reduce the population size, or to spread desirable genes into the target population. Recent research has shown that the production of fit and competitive transformants can now be achieved and that transgenes may not necessarily confer a fitness cost. In this article we review the most recent published results of the fitness assessment of different transgenic insect lines and underline the necessity to fulfill key requirements of ecological safety. Fitness evaluation studies performed in field cages and medium/large-scale rearing will validate the present encouraging laboratory results, giving an indication of the performance of the transgenic insect genotype after release in pest control programmes.     

Hymenopteran parasitoids and dipteran predators of the invasive aphid Diuraphis noxia after enemy introductions: Temporal variation and implication for future aphid invasions

Shifts in prevalence and abundance of hymenopteran parasitoids and dipteran predators, Diuraphis noxia, and other aphids were measured in the west-central Great Plains of North America, April–September, in 2001 and 2002, corresponding to over a decade after first detection of D. noxia and first release of D. noxia enemies. Significant temporal shifts in enemy species prevalence and diversity were detected in this study and more broadly during an 11 year time span. At any given time, some species were relatively common. One parasitoid had been predominant throughout (Aphelinus albipodus), two had shifted in dominance (Lysiphlebus testaceipes and Diaeretiella rapae), three parasitoids had been detected infrequently (Aphidius avenaphis, Aphidius matricariae, and Aphelinus asychis), one parasitoid was detected in the 1990s but not during 2001 and 2002 (Aphelinus varipes), two predatory flies occurred at occasional significant levels (Leucopis gaimarii and Eupeodes volucris), and two parasitoids may have been minor members of the fauna (Aphidius ervi and Praon yakimanum). Aphid populations detected were usually very low or not detected, precluding estimation of percent parasitism. The best evidence of suppression was observations of parasitoids in the rare case of D. noxia exceeding economic thresholds, which complemented past studies using high aphid densities. The D. noxia enemies detected were primarily endemic or long-time residents derived from previous introductions. This enemy community may provide flexibility in responding to a future aphid invasion, allowing more strategic use of biological control and other pest management approaches.     

Noninvasive molecular methods to identify live scarab larvae: an example of sympatric pest and nonpest species in New Zealand

Despite the negative impact that many scarab larvae have on agro-ecosystems, very little attention has been paid to their taxonomy. Their often extremely similar morphological characteristics have probably contributed to this impediment, which has also meant that they are very difficult to identify in the field. Molecular methods can overcome this challenge and are particularly useful for the identification of larvae to enable management of pest species occurring sympatrically with nonpest species. However, the invasive collection of DNA samples for such molecular methods is not compatible with subsequent behavioural, developmental or fitness studies. Two noninvasive DNA sampling and DNA analysis methods suitable for the identification of larvae from closely related scarab species were developed here. Using the frass and larval exuviae as sources of DNA, field-collected larvae of Costelytra zealandica (White) and Costelytra brunneum (Broun) (Scarabaeidae: Melolonthinae) were identified by multiplex PCR based on the difference in size of the resulting PCR products. This study also showed that small quantities of frass can be used reliably even 7 days after excretion. This stability of the DNA is of major importance in ecological studies where timeframes rarely allow daily monitoring. The approach developed here is readily transferable to the study of any holometabolous insect species for which morphological identification of larval stages is difficult.     

Parasitoids and dipteran predators exploit volatiles from microbial symbionts to locate bark beetles

Host location by parasitoids and dipteran predators of bark beetles is poorly understood. Unlike coleopteran predators that locate prey by orienting to prey pheromones, wasps and flies often attack life stages not present until after pheromone production ceases. Bark beetles have important microbial symbionts, which could provide sources of cues. We tested host trees, trees colonized by beetles and symbionts, and trees colonized by symbionts alone for attractiveness to hymenopteran parasitoids and dipteran predators. Field studies were conducted with Ips pini in Montana. Three pteromalid wasps were predominant. All were associated with the second and third instars of I. pini. Heydenia unica was more attracted to logs colonized by either I. pini or the fungus Ophiostoma ips than logs alone or blank controls (screen with no log). Rhopalicus pulchripennis was more attracted to logs colonized by I. pini than logs alone or blank controls. Dibrachys cavus was attracted to logs but did not distinguish whether or not they were colonized. Two dolichopodid predators were predominant. A Medetera species was more attracted to colonized than uncolonized logs and more attracted to logs than blank controls. It was also more attracted to logs colonized with the yeast Pichia scolyti than uncolonized logs, but attraction was less consistent. An unidentified dolichopodid was more attracted to logs colonized with I. pini, O. ips, and the bacteria Burkholderia sp., than to uncolonized logs. It was also attracted to uncolonized logs. Its responses were less consistent and pronounced than H. unica. These results suggest some parasitoids and dipteran predators exploit microbial symbionts of bark beetles to locate hosts. Overall, specialists showed strong attraction to fungal cues, whereas generalists were more attracted by plant volatiles. These results also show how microbial symbionts can have conflicting effects on host fitness.