Embryonic and larval development of a cold adapted Antarctic ascidian

Ova of the Antarctic ascidian Cnemidocarpa verrucosa were mature at 240–245 μm. At 0 to −1.5°C, embryos hatched as swimming tadpoles at 8 days from fertilization, which is close to the ages at which some Antarctic echinoderm and nemertean embryos hatch as blastulae. Comparisons of Antarctic and temperate ascidian larvae suggest that the ascidian’s development rate is affected by low environmental temperatures to about the same extent as embryos and larvae of an echinoid, nemertean, and calanoid copepods. The ascidian’s tadpoles were bright orange and large, >2 mm in length including tunic and >1.5 mm in length without tunic. The large and brightly colored tadpoles were conspicuous when swimming, which supports the hypothesis that larvae of C. verrucosa are chemically defended against predators. Metamorphosed juveniles were found in cultures within 16 days from fertilization, when some unsettled tadpoles still moved but were less active. The potential pelagic period may therefore be 16 or more days with 8 days as an unhatched embryo and up to 8 or more days as a tadpole. The resting metabolic rate of tadpole larvae was 15 pmol O₂ h⁻¹ individual⁻¹ which is equivalent to larval respiration rates in Antarctic echinoderms. A low resting metabolic rate suggests a potential mechanism for the extended larval lifespan in C. verrucosa.