Plant/animal interactions during the upper carboniferous

This paper discusses evidence for plant/animal relationships in the Upper Carboniferous. Close interactions are examined from the study of fossil plants and animals preserved in coal swamp and coastal plain environments. Evidence for plant/animal interactions is in the form of: (1) animal morphology, including both vertebrates and invertebrates. The vertebrates are dominated by amphibians; however, a few reptiles are known and are mostly carnivores or insectivores. The invertebrate communities are dominated by arthropods, many of which are herbivores. Millipedes, springtails and mites are present on the forest floor and in peats, with insects dominating above ground environments. The diets of the animals have been studied using evidence from gut contents, coprolites, anatomy and comparisons to modern representatives. (2) Plant morphology, including positive stimulation (i.e., dispersal vectors) or in terms of negative stimulation such as protection against herbivory. These data include plant anatomy and morphology, evidence of herbivory in the form of chewed leaves, bored seeds and megaspores, etc. Evidence is provided that suggests that the medullosan seed fern pollen typeMonoletes may have been dispersed by animal vectors. Information on plant/animal relationships in a single environment is based on a study of coprolites extracted from permineralizations (coal balls). Assemblages of coprolites found in these coal balls suggest that they were formed principally from mites, Collembola and millipedes, and demonstrates that the association of soil arthropods, which is important in modern soil ecosystems, was already dominating similar environments in the late Carboniferous. The abundant fossil evidence for plant/animal interrelationships during the Upper Carboniferous should be evaluated when considering co-evolution.