Testing subspecies hypothesis with molecular markers and morphometrics in the Pacific white tern complex

To test the validity of subspecies designations of the white tern, genetic and morphological data were used to assess differences among four putative Pacific subspecies Gygis alba candida , Gygis alba rothschildi , Gygis alba pacifica , and Gygis alba microrhyncha . The origin(s) of a recent colonization of Oahu was also examined using molecular data. Samples were collected from 209 birds, representing island groups of the North and South Pacific. Culmen length and depth, longest and shortest rectrix lengths, and wing chord measurements from an earlier dataset were compared. Mitochondrial DNA variation suggests that there are no phylogenetically distinct species within the Pacific Ocean. The genetic and morphological similarity of G. a. candida and G. a. rothschildi warrants merging them into one subspecies ( G. a. candida ). Gygis alba microrhyncha and G. a. pacifica are distinctly smaller and larger than the other two subspecies, respectively, but are not completely diagnosable across the morphological characters examined. Although the Pacific subspecies do not exhibit reciprocal monophyly, there is significant genetic differentiation among the two South Pacific groups, G. a. microrhyncha , G. a. pacifica , and all other Pacific subspecies. This differentiation warrants treating these two South Pacific groups as separate management units, but not species or subspecies. Finally, the recently established population of white terns on Oahu shared haplotypes with all subspecies, suggesting multiple origins from populations across the Pacific and confirming contemporary gene flow.  © 2009 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society , 2009, 98 , 586–595.