Extrinsic information influences taste and flavor perception: A review from psychological and neuroimaging perspectives |
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| Institution: | 1. Research Center for Animal Hygiene and Food Safety, Obihiro University of Agriculture & Veterinary Medicine, Inada-cho, Obihiro, Hokkaido 080-8555, Japan;2. Functional Brain Science Laboratory, Center for Development of Advanced Medical Technology, Jichi Medical University, 3311-1 Yakushiji, Shimotsuke, Tochigi 329-0498, Japan;1. The New Zealand Institute for Plant & Food Research Ltd., 120 Mt. Albert Road, Private Bag 92169, Auckland, New Zealand;2. Firmenich, SA, Route des Jeunes 1, 1227 Geneva, Switzerland;1. Department of Food Science and Technology, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University (Virginia Tech), Blacksburg 24061, USA;2. Psychology Department, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg 24061, USA;3. Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg 24061, USA;1. Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, University of Basel, Missionsstrasse 62, Basel 4055, Switzerland;2. School of Psychology, The University of Sydney, Manning Road, Sydney 2050, Australia;3. School of Psychology, Plymouth University, Portland Square, Plymouth PL4, United Kingdom;1. Sensory Evaluation Center, College of Agricultural Sciences, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, United States;2. Department of Food Science, College of Agricultural Sciences, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, United States;1. ESCE International Business School, 10 rue Sextius Michel, 75015 Paris, France;2. University of Applied Sciences Burgenland, Campus 1, 7000 Eisenstadt, Austria |
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| Abstract: | The perception of taste and flavor can be greatly biased by extrinsic cues, or the information about a food that comes from outside of the food itself, such as package designs, brands, prices, and so on. In order to understand taste/flavor experiences in a broader context, it is necessary to consider factors other than the food/tastants themselves. This review aims to summarize some of the relevant findings from psychological and neuroimaging studies, focusing on depicting how extrinsic cues exert their effect on taste and flavor. Currently, the most frequently considered psychological mediator for the effects of extrinsic cues is expectation. Depending on the gap between expectation and taste/flavor experience, four major models predict outcomes of expectation effects: (1) assimilation, (2) generalized-negativity, (3) contrast, and (4) assimilation-contrast. Among them, the most influential is the assimilation model proposing that taste/flavor experiences are modified toward what one expects. Thus far, all the neuroimaging studies examining the influence of extrinsic cues have dealt with assimilation effects. They suggest that when extrinsic cues influence taste/flavor perception, cortical representations of taste/flavor are also modulated. Collectively neuroimaging findings partly answer questions arising from psychological aspects: the influence of extrinsic cues is not due to superficial response bias but to truly changed perception. These findings, albeit limited to assimilation effects, suggest that combined understanding from both psychological and neuroimaging studies would help deepen our understanding of the taste experience. |
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