A major change in monsoon-driven productivity in the tropical Indian Ocean during ca 1.2–0.9 Myr: Foraminiferal faunal and stable isotope data

Tropical climate is variable on astronomical time scale, driving changes in surface and deep-sea fauna during the Pliocene–Pleistocene. To understand these changes in the tropical Indian Ocean over the past 2.36 Myr, we quantitatively analyzed deep-sea benthic foraminifera and selected planktic foraminifera from > 125 μm size fraction from Deep Sea Drilling Project Site 219. The data from Site 219 was combined with published foraminiferal and isotope data from Site 214, eastern Indian Ocean to determine the nature of changes. Factor and cluster analyses of the 28 highest-ranked species distinguished four biofacies, characterizing distinct deep-sea environmental settings. These biofacies have been named after their most dominant species such as Stilostomella lepidula–Pleurostomella alternans (Sl–Pa), Nuttallides umbonifer–Globocassidulina subglobosa (Nu–Gs), Oridorsalis umbonatus–Gavelinopsis lobatulus (Ou–Gl) and Epistominella exigua–Uvigerina hispido-costata (Ee–Uh) biofacies. Biofacies Sl–Pa ranges from ~ 2.36 to 0.55 Myr, biofacies Nu–Gs ranges from ~ 1.9 to 0.65 Myr, biofacies Ou–Gl ranges from ~ 1 to 0.35 Myr and biofacies Ee–Uh ranges from 1.1 to 0.25 Myr. The proxy record indicates fluctuating tropical environmental conditions such as oxygenation, surface productivity and organic food supply. These changes appear to have been driven by changes in monsoonal wind intensity related to glacial–interglacial cycles. A shift at ~ 1.2–0.9 Myr is observed in both the faunal and isotope records at Site 219, indicating a major increase in monsoon-induced productivity. This coincides with increased amplitude of glacial cycles, which appear to have influenced low latitude monsoonal climate as well as deep-sea conditions in the tropical Indian Ocean.