Cell biology meets biophysics to unveil the different mechanisms of penetratin internalization in cells

Although cell-penetrating peptides are widely used as molecular devices to cross membranes and transport molecules or nanoparticles inside cells, the underlying internalization mechanism for such behavior is still studied and discussed. One of the reasons for such a debate is the wide panel of chemically different cell-penetrating peptides or cargo that is used. Indeed the intrinsic physico-chemical properties of CPP and conjugates strongly affect the cell membrane recognition and therefore the internalization pathways. Altogether, the mechanisms described so far should be shared between two general pathways: endocytosis and direct translocation. As it is established now that one cell-penetrating peptide can internalize at the same time by these two different pathways, the balance between the two pathways relies on the binding of the cell-penetrating peptide or conjugate to specific cell membrane components (carbohydrates, lipids). Like endocytosis which includes clathrin- and caveolae-dependent processes and macropinocytosis, different translocation mechanisms could co-exist, an idea that emerges from recent studies. In this review, we will focus solely on penetratin membrane interactions and internalization mechanisms.