Breeding energetics and food requirements of gentoo penguins (Pygoscelis papua) at Heard and Macquarie Islands

The food and energy requirements of breeding gentoo penguins ( Pygoscelis papua ) were studied at Heard and Macquaric Islands by means of isotope turnover techniques.
The food consumption rates of chicks were measured at various stages of growth, providing estimates of the total food provided by adults to rear a chick to fledging.
The energy expenditures of attending adults were also measured at different stages of chick-rearing, allowing the total energy costs associated with breeding to be established for a pair of adults and at the population level on both islands. We estimate the total annual energy budget of a 6·2 kg breeding gentoo penguin to be 1517 MJ which is equivalent to the consumption of 292 kg prey.