Leaf-swallowing by chimpanzees: A behavioral adaptation for the control of strongyle nematode infections |
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| Authors: | Michael A Huffman Jonathan E Page Michael V K Sukhdeo Shunji Gotoh Mohamedi S Kalunde Thushara Chandrasiri G H Neil Towers |
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| Institution: | (1) Section of Ecology, Kyoto University, Primate Research Institute, 41 Kanrin, Inuyama, 484 Aichi, Japan;(2) Department of Anthropology, University of Colorado at Denver, 80217-3364 Denver, Colorado;(3) Botany Department, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, B.C., Canada;(4) Department of Animal Sciences, Cook College, Rutgers University, 08903 New Brunswick, New Jersey;(5) Laboratory Primate Center, Kyoto University Primate Research Institute, 41 Kanrin, Inuyama, Japan;(6) Mahale Mountains National Park, Box 1374, Kigoma, Tanzania;(7) Section of Ecology, Kyoto University, Primate Research Institute, 41 Kanrin, Inuyama, 484 Aichi, Japan |
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| Abstract: | Swallowing whole leaves by chimpanzees and other African apes has been hypothesized to have an antiparasitic or medicinal
function, but detailed studies demonstrating this were lacking. We correlate for the first time quantifiable measures of the
health of chimpanzees with observations of leaf-swallowing in Mahale Mountains National Park, Tanzania. We obtained a total
of 27 cases involving the use ofAspilia mossambicensis (63%),Lippia plicata (7%),Hibiscus sp. (15%),Trema orientalis (4%), andAneilema aequinoctiale (11%), 15 cases by direct observation of 12 individuals of the Mahale M group. At the time of use, we noted behavioral symptoms
of illness in the 8 closely observed cases, and detected single or multiple parasitic infections (Strongyloides fulleborni,
Trichuris trichiura, Oesophagostomum stephanostomum) in 10 of the 12 individuals. There is a significant relationship between
the presence of whole leaves (range, 1–51) and worms of adultO. stephanostomum (range, 2–21) in the dung. HPLC analysis of leaf samples collected after use showed that thiarubrine A, a compound proposed
to act as a potent nematocide in swallowingAspilia spp., was not present in leaves ofA. mossambicensis or the three other species analyzed. Alternative nematocidal or egg-laying inhibition activity was not evident. Worms ofO. stephanostomum were recovered live and motile from chimpanzee dung, trapped within the folded leaves and attached to leaf surfaces by trichomes,
though some were moving freely within the fecal matter, suggesting that the physical properties of leaves may contribute to
the expulsion of parasites. We review previous hypotheses concerning leaf-swallowing and propose an alternative hypothesis
based on physical action. |
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| Keywords: | chimpanzees antiparasite behavior physical expulsion Oesophagostomum stephanostomum trichomes |
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