Novel method of niosome generation using supercritical carbon dioxide part I: process mechanics

Abstract

A novel method for the production of non-ionic surfactant vesicles (niosomes) using an rapid expansion of supercritical solution (RESS)-based process coupled with a gas ejector is presented along with an investigation of parameters affecting niosome morphology, size and encapsulation efficiency of a 0.2?M d-glucose solution in Tris buffer at physiological pH. The solubility of the non-ionic surfactant polyoxyethylene(4) sorbitan monostearate in SC-CO₂ was determined at three pressures (10, 15 and 20?MPa) and three temperatures (40, 50 and 60?°C). Mole fraction of Tween61 in the vapor phase increased with pressure at 40?°C, but did not change with pressure at 50 or 60?°C. Solubility data were correlated using the Peng–Robinson equation of state (PREOS) with the Panagiotopoulos and Reid mixing rule. Vesicles were either multilamellar or unilamellar, depending on the degree of precipitation of the lipid formulation at the point of aqueous cargo introduction. Vesicle particle size distributions were bimodal, with the 80–99% of the liposomal volume contributed niosomes ranging in size from 3 to 7?μm and the remaining niosomes ranging from 239 to 969?nm, depending on the system configuration. Encapsulation efficiency as high as 28% using the gas ejector to introduce the glucose cargo solution was achieved. Vesicle particle size and encapsulation efficiency were shown to be dependent on cargo droplet formation.