Fully non-linear hyper-viscoelastic modeling of skeletal muscle in compression

Understanding the behavior of skeletal muscle is critical to implementing computational methods to study how the body responds to compressive loading. This work presents a novel approach to studying the fully nonlinear response of skeletal muscle in compression. Porcine muscle was compressed in both the longitudinal and transverse directions under five stress relaxation steps. Each step consisted of 5% engineering strain over 1 s followed by a relaxation period until equilibrium was reached at an observed change of 1 g/min. The resulting data were analyzed to identify the peak and equilibrium stresses as well as relaxation time for all samples. Additionally, a fully nonlinear strain energy density–based Prony series constitutive model was implemented and validated with independent constant rate compressive data. A nonlinear least squares optimization approach utilizing the Levenberg–Marquardt algorithm was implemented to fit model behavior to experimental data. The results suggested the time-dependent material response plays a key role in the anisotropy of skeletal muscle as increasing strain showed differences in peak stress and relaxation time (p < 0.05), but changes in equilibrium stress disappeared (p > 0.05). The optimizing procedure produced a single set of hyper-viscoelastic parameters which characterized compressive muscle behavior under stress relaxation conditions. The utilized constitutive model was the first orthotropic, fully nonlinear hyper-viscoelastic model of skeletal muscle in compression while maintaining agreement with constitutive physical boundaries. The model provided an excellent fit to experimental data and agreed well with the independent validation in the transverse direction.