Theoretical studies on animal orientation. I. Methodological appraisal of classifications

Research on animal orientation shows a persistent lack of integration. Theories entertained in different “schools” are couched in incommensurable terms. The underlying definitions mostly do not satisfy elementary canons of methodology, and this results in a confusion of empirical and conceptual problems. Application of basic methodology shows that current classifications of orientation patterns are logically incomplete.Moreover, allegedly distinct kinds of orientation wrongly show logical dependencies resulting from poor definitions. Reference to physiological mechanisms, beyond stimuli and responses, must be omitted from definitions for orientation patterns. Likewise, orientation must not be made functional (adaptive) by definition. Vagueness is to some extent unavoidable in general theories.