Change in floral orientation in Anisodus luridus (Solanaceae) protects pollen grains and facilitates development of fertilized ovules

? Premise of the study: Some floral traits could be selected by pollinators and nonpollinator agents, and studying the floral traits shaped by physical agents could reveal adaptive mechanisms to the environment. We explored the adaptive significance of the change in floral orientation, from pendulous flowers to erect fruits that have a persistent calyx, in Anisodus luridus, a perennial native to the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau (QTP). ? Methods: We examined the effect of flower orientation on pollinator visitation rates, pollen deposition efficiency, pollen quantity, and pollen viability to estimate whether pendulous flowers have improved male fitness. We then measured seed production and seed germination rate to assess whether erect fruits have enhanced female fitness. ? Key results: Pendulous flowers did not have any preferred pollinators or increased pollen deposition. In artificially erected flowers, the number of pollen grains greatly decreased after rainwash. Pollen germination experiments indicated that pollen damage by water and exposure to solar radiation is serious. In the persistent calyx that holds water within it, the temperature inside the calyx changed slower than in the calyx that had the water removed. After supplemental pollination, the seed number, seed set, and seed mass of fruits that had water removed from the calyx were reduced greatly in both years. ? Conclusions: We conclude that the change in floral orientation could enhance male and female fitness of A. luridus and is effectively adaptive to the alpine environments, indicating a strong selection by the combined pressure from various abiotic nonpollinator agents in shaping the floral traits of this alpine plant.