Evolution of cardiovascular adaptation to gravity

The present paper considers the evolutionary responses of vertebrates to gravitational stressors acting on the cardiovascular system. Inasmuch as the range of published studies addressing gravity's effects on cardiovascular function is limited to relatively few taxa, the perspective developed here is based largely on studies of snakes and a few mammals. A brief review and synthesis of the available data suggest several generalizations concerning the evolutionary responses of form and function to gravity's stress on blood circulation.