Contributions of expression redistribution and allele substitutions to the genetic differentiation of animal taxa of different ranks

The contributions to the genetic differences between animal taxa of various ranks were estimated for four groups of loci: loci with identical (i), similar (s), or completely different (d) allele compositions, and (o) loci displaying a change in expression. The main contribution is made by i-and s-loci at the intraspecific level. Another pattern is observed at the specific level: d-loci become dominant and o-loci appear, suggesting fundamental changes in the genomes upon speciation. The relationships between the contributions of the four groups of loci are relatively stable within a class and differ among classes. Interestingly, the extent of genetic differentiation (as estimated from the proportions of the above four components) observed at the specific level in amphibians is achieved only at the level of families in birds. The approach is especially efficient for identifying hybrid populations and individuals.