Cholinergic constituents in plants: Characterization and distribution of acetylcholine and choline

Acetylcholine in plants was identified by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. Acetylcholine was found in the following species from 13 families: Betula pendula, Codiaeum variegatum, Ilex opaca, Liquidambar styraciflua, Lonicera japonica, Phaseolus aureus, Phaseolus vulgaris, Pisum sativum, Plantago rugelli, Populus grandidentata, Prunus serotina, Rhus copallina, Smilax hispida, Viburnum dilatatum , and Zea mays . Levels of acetylcholine in leaves ranged from a low of 0.14 ± 0.05 (mean ± SEM) nmol (g fresh weight)^?1 in I. opaca to a high of 53 ± 6.6 nmol (g fresh weight)^?1 in P. aureus . Acetylcholine was found in all tissues examined regardless of the organ (leaves, stems, or roots) or developmental stage (seedlings, mature plants, or seeds). For P. aureus , continuous light exposure increased acetylcholine levels of leaves, and decreased levels in stem when compared to dark controls. Levels of choline, a precursor of acetylcholine, found in leaves ranged from a low of 84 ± 7.0 nmol (g fresh weight)^?1 in L. styraciflua to a high of 3700 ± 200 nmol (g fresh weight)^?1 in P. aureus . With these findings, three out of the four components of the cholinergic system have now been identified in plants.