Anthropogenic risk increases night-time activities and associations in African elephants (Loxodonta africana) in the Ruaha-Rungwa ecosystem,Tanzania

Elephants face diverse threats from human activities and use temporal and social strategies to reduce human-induced mortality risk. We used data from camera trap surveys in 2018–2019 (n = 1625 independent detection events from 11,751 sampling days) to investigate elephant responses to anthropogenic risk in the Ruaha-Rungwa ecosystem, Tanzania. The study was conducted in one low-risk and three high-risk sites using 26–40 paired camera trap stations per site. Risk influenced the active periods, use of roads and water sources, social associations and behaviour of elephants. Elephants demonstrated significantly more night-time and reduced daytime activity in the high-risk sites relative to the low-risk site. This higher night-time activity in the high-risk sites was observed for both males and females, though it was more pronounced for cow–calf groups than lone males. Foraging events and use of water sources were more frequent at night in the high-risk sites. Elephants used roads as movement routes in the low-risk site but avoided roads in the high-risk sites. Males were significantly more likely to associate with other males and cow–calf groups in the high-risk sites. Fewer occurrences of relaxed behaviours were observed in the high-risk sites compared to the low-risk site. We discuss the potential implications of our findings for elephant survival and reproduction.