Fitness costs associated with different frequencies and magnitudes of temperature change in the butterfly Bicyclus anynana

Plastic responses to changes in environmental conditions are ubiquitous and typically highly effective, but are predicted to incur costs. We here investigate the effects of different frequencies and magnitudes of temperature change in the tropical butterfly Bicyclus anynana, considering developmental (Experiment 1) and adult stage plasticity (Experiment 2). We predicted negative effects of more frequent temperature changes on development, immune function and/or reproduction. Results from Experiment 1 showed that repeated temperature changes during development, if involving large amplitudes, negatively affect larval time, larval growth rate and pupal mass, while adult traits remained unaffected. However, results from treatment groups with smaller temperature amplitudes yielded no clear patterns. In Experiment 2 prolonged but not repeated exposure to 39 °C increased heat tolerance, potentially reflecting costs of repeatedly activating emergency responses. At the same time fecundity was more strongly reduced in the group with prolonged heat stress, suggesting a trade-off between heat tolerance and reproduction. Clear effects were restricted to conditions involving large temperature amplitudes or high temperatures.