Social Insect Colonies as Complex Adaptive Systems

Social insect societies are complex adaptive systems that self-organize within a set of constraints. Although it is important to acknowledge that global order in social insects can arise as a result of internal interactions among insects, it is equally important to include external factors and constraints in the picture, especially as the colony and its environment may influence each other through interactions among internal and external factors. The scope of this remark goes beyond social insects and applies to a wide range of biological systems, including ecosystems. Received 14 April 1998; accepted 7 July 1998.