Optical reversal of halothane-induced immobility in C. elegans

Volatile anesthetics (VAs) cause profound neurological effects, including reversible loss of consciousness and immobility. Despite their widespread use, the mechanism of action of VAs remains one of the unsolved puzzles of neuroscience 1] and 2] ]. Genetic studies in Caenorhabditis elegans 3] and 4] ], Drosophila 3] and 5] ], and mice 6] , 7] , 8] and 9] ] indicate that ion channels controlling the neuronal resting membrane potential (RMP) also control anesthetic sensitivity. Leak channels selective for K⁺ 10] , 11] , 12] and 13] ] or permeable to Na⁺ 14] are critical for establishing RMP. We hypothesized that halothane, a VA, caused immobility by altering the neuronal RMP. In C. elegans, halothane-induced immobility is acutely and completely reversed by channelrhodopsin-2 based depolarization of the RMP when expressed specifically in cholinergic neurons. Furthermore, hyperpolarizing cholinergic neurons via halorhodopsin activation increases sensitivity to halothane. The sensitivity of C. elegans to halothane can be altered by 25-fold by either manipulation of membrane conductance with optogenetic methods or generation of mutations in leak channels that set the RMP. Immobility induced by another VA, isoflurane, is not affected by these treatments, thereby excluding the possibility of nonspecific hyperactivity. The sum of our data indicates that leak channels and the RMP are important determinants of halothane-induced general anesthesia.