Schistosome immunology: more questions than answers

The past 30 years have seen research on the immunology of schistosomiasis move to encompass studies of responses in naturally exposed human populations, in addition to the studies in animal model systems. While animal systems still retain an important place in research on the immunology of schistosomiasis, recent debate has centred on aspects of human immunological responses that may or may not be associated with resistance or susceptibility to infection. In this article, Paul Hagan, Patricia Ndhlovu and David Dunne take stock of the present state of knowledge and offer their views on prospects for the future.