Beta-turns in proteins

The X-ray atomic co-ordinates from 29 proteins of known sequence and structure were utilized to elucidate 459 β-turns in regions of chain reversals. Tetrapeptides whose αC_iαC_{(i + 3)} distances were below 7 Å and not in a helical region were characterized as β-turns. In addition, β-turns were considered to have hydrogen bonding if their computed O_(i)N_{(i + 3)} distances were ≤3.5 Å. The torsion angles of 26 proteins containing 421 β-turns were examined and classified into 11 bend types based on the (φ, ψ) dihedral angles of the i + 1 and i + 2 bend residues. The average frequency of β-turns is 32% as compared to the 38% helices and 20% β-sheets in the 29 proteins. The most frequently occurring bend residues are Asn, Cys, Asp in the first position, Pro, Ser, Lys in the second position, Asn, Asp, Gly in the third position, and Trp, Gly, Tyr in the fourth position. Residues with the highest β-turn potential in all four positions are Pro, Gly, Asn, Asp, and Ser with the most hydrophobic residues (i.e. Val, IIe, and Leu) showing the lowest bend potential. However, in the region just beyond the β-turns, hydrophobic residues occur with greater frequency than do hydrophilic residues. An environmental analysis of β-turn neighboring residues shows that reverse chain folding is stabilized by anti-parallel β-sheets as well as helix-helix and α-β interactions. The β-turn potential at the 12 positions adjacent to and including the bend were plotted for the 20 amino acids and showed dramatic positional preferences, which may be classified according to the nature of the side-chains. An examination of the 27 β-turns in elastase showed that 21 were found in identical positions as those in α-chymotrypsin. However, only 37 of the 84 bend residues were conserved, indicating that structural similarity may persist despite differences in sequence homology. A survey of residues occupying bend types I′, II′ and III′ showed that Gly appeared most frequently in the third position in bend types I′ and III′ as well as in the second position in bend types II′ and III′. Fourteen hydrogenbonded type II bends were found without a Gly at the third position, contrary to the energy calculations. Eight type VI bends with a cis Pro at the third position were also elucidated.