Restoration and Science: A Practitioner/Scientist's View from Rare Habitat Restoration at a Southern California Preserve

Researchers reexamining the relationship between restoration science and practice report a continuing scientist‐practitioner gap. As a land manager with scientific training, I offer my perspective of the chasm and describe a restoration practice infused with as much science as the realities of limited budget and time allow. The coastal sage scrub (CSS) restoration project at Starr Ranch, a 1,585 ha Audubon preserve in southern California, combines non‐chemical invasive species control, restoration, and applied research. Our practices evolve from modified scientific approaches and the scientific literature. Results from experiments with non‐optimum replication (on effects of seed rates, soil tamping, and timing of planting) nonetheless had value for management decisions. A critical practice came from academic research that encouraged cost‐effective passive restoration. Our passive restoration monitoring data showed 28–100% total native cover after 3–5 years. Another published study found that restoration success in semiarid regions is dependent on rainfall, a finding vital for understanding active restoration monitoring results that showed a range of 0–88% total native cover at the end of the first season. Work progresses through a combination of applied research, a watchful eye on the scientific literature, and “ecological intuition” informed by the scientific literature and our own findings. I suggest that it is less critical for academic scientists to address the basic questions on technique that are helpful to land managers but rather advocate practitioner training in methods to test alternative strategies and long‐term monitoring.     

Water and carbon storage capacity in Isolatocereus dumortieri (Cactaceae) in an intertropical semiarid zone in Mexico

In the biosphere reserve Barranca de Metztitlán in Mexico, there is an extensive area with a semiarid scrub. The dominant species is the cactus Isolatocereus dumortieri. This is a key species in the ecosystem, because many species of birds, bats and insects are feeding from its nectar, pollen and fruits during the dry season thanks to their capacity to store water and carbon. However, there is no information about their potential to store water and carbon. The purpose of this study was to estimate the ability of I. dumortieri to store water and carbon. Water content per plant was estimated as 537.64 ± 71.59 L during the dry season and 692.24 ± 92.18 L during the wet season. In the same way the carbon stored per cactus was 16.75 kg ± 7.07 corresponding to 1.25 kg C m². The results shows the importance of I. dumortieri in maintaining the ecosystem services of the scrub vegetation.     

Targeting metabolic pathways proteins of Orientia tsutsugamushi using combined hierarchical approach to combat scrub typhus

Orientia tsutsugamushi (Ott) is a causative agent of chigger‐borne zoonosis, scrub typhus which is life threatening and highly pervasive illness in humans. In this report, we have mined and classified the proteins involved in pathways unique to Ott by using high‐throughput computational techniques. The 12 metabolic pathways were found to be unique to the pathogen. Forty‐six proteins were reported to be essential for the pathogen's survival and non‐homologous to the humans. The proteins were categorized into different classes, ie, enzymes, transporters, DNA‐binding, secretory, and outer membrane proteins. Further, in silico analysis of 46 proteins showed that 25 proteins were suitable therapeutic targets with known druggable properties. The structural modeling of B3CSG3 (MurA) protein was carried out and catalytic site essential for its functioning was analyzed. Virtual screening of chemical compounds was performed against modeled structure. The docking study by AutodockVina reported compound from PubChem with CID: 16036947 as best and potential inhibitor by means of docking score and binding affinity. The reliability and stability of the MurA‐16036947 complex were confirmed with molecular dynamics simulation. The report will provide insight to understand the mechanism of pathogenesis of Ott and instigate the development of effective treatment strategies against this disease.     

Composition and ecological drivers of the kwongan scrub and woodlands in the northern Swan Coastal Plain,Western Australia

The nature of community patterns and environmental drivers in kwongan mediterranean‐type shrubland on nutrient‐poor soils occurring in Western Australia remain poorly examined. We aimed to determine whether (i) classification of the kwongan vegetation of the northern Swan Coastal Plain would be ecologically informative and (ii) which environmental drivers underpin the plant community patterns. The study area was positioned on the northern Swan Coastal Plain, locality of Cooljarloo (30°39′ S, 115°22′ E), situated 170 km north of Perth, Western Australia. Compositional (518 species × 337 relevés) and environmental data set (29 variables × 87 relevés) describing time since last fire, soil chemical and physical properties, and terrain characteristics were analysed using classification and ordination techniques. OptimClass assisted in the selection of a robust data transformation, resemblance function and clustering algorithm to identify the vegetation patterns. Major ecological drivers of the vegetation patterns were detected using distance‐based redundancy analysis (db‐RDA). Classification revealed major groupings of Wet Heath and Banksia Woodland distinguishable by the high prevalence of myrtyoid and proteoid taxa, respectively. On floristic‐sociological grounds, we recognised four Wet Heath and two Banksia Woodland communities. The Wet Heath was constrained to areas of higher litter depth (db‐RDA axis 1: 9%). Soil chemical and physical properties explained the highest proportion (17%) of the compositional variance, while the terrain‐ and fire‐related variables explained 2% and <0.001%, respectively. While fire explained little compositional variance overall, a separate db‐RDA analysis found that it may play an important pattern‐structuring role within Banksia Woodlands. Fine‐scale compositional patterns correspond only to a small extent to environmental data; the substantial unexplained variance may be due to slow‐acting neutral and stochastic processes.     

Fragmented landscapes, habitat specificity, and conservation genetics of three lizards in Florida scrub

Dry, sandy scrub habitats of the Floridapeninsula represent naturally fragmentedremnants of xeric ecosystems that werewidespread during the Pliocene and earlyPleistocene. This habitat is characterized byhigh endemism, and distribution of genetic andevolutionary diversity among scrub ``islands' isof compelling interest because Florida scrub israpidly disappearing under human development. We compare range-wide diversity inmitochondrial cytochrome b sequences forthree scrub-associated lizards with contrastinglevels of habitat specificity. All speciesshow strong geographic partitioning of geneticdiversity, supporting the hypothesis that scrubfauna is highly restricted by vicariantseparations. The mole skink (Eumecesegregius), the least habitat specific, has thelowest phylogeographic structure among thelizards (_st = 0.631). The mtDNAgeneology for E. egregius is not entirelyconcordant with the five recognized subspeciesand supports a link between populations incentral Florida (E. e. lividus) and theFlorida Keys (E.e. egregius) rather thana previously proposed affiliation betweennorthern and southern populations. The Floridascrub lizard (Sceloporus woodi) is themost habitat specific of the lizards and hasthe strongest phylogeographic structure (_st = 0.876). The sand skink (Neosepsreynoldsi) falls between the moleskink and scrub lizard in terms of habitatspecificity and phylogeographic structure (_st = 0.667). For all three species,networks of mtDNA haplotypes coalesce on twocentral ridges that contain the oldest scrub. The geographic structure and deep evolutionarylineages observed in these species have strongimplications for conservation, includingstrategies for translocation, reserve design,and management of landscape connectivity.     

Competitive abilities of three narrowly endemic plant species in experimental neighborhoods along a fire gradient

We conducted field experiments manipulating lichens, shrubs, and herbs along a time-since-fire gradient and assessing effects on three endemic herbaceous species of Florida scrub: Eryngium cuneifolium, Hypericum cumulicola, and Polygonella basiramia. Responses included seed germination, survival, biomass, and fecundity. Transplants into recently burned patches generally had higher survival, larger biomass, and greater reproductive output than transplants into long-unburned patches. Open areas and sites near oaks frequently were more favorable than sites near Florida rosemary. Ground lichens did not affect germination but increased mortality rate of seedlings. Neighboring small shrubby and herbaceous species did not affect the performance of these species. Of the three species, naturally occurring E. cuneifolium were farthest from large shrubs, and their microhabitats had the least ground lichens and shrubs. Eryngium cuneifolium and H. cumulicola are capable of forming persistent seed banks and their recruitment after fire depends mostly on these dormant seeds. Polygonella basiramia relies on seed dispersal and immediate seed germination to colonize recently burned patches. Management for these species should involve variable fire regimes to allow all three species to persist along with many other scrub endemics.     

New breeding localities of Worthen's Sparrows in northeastern Mexico

ABSTRACT.   Worthen's Sparrows ( Spizella wortheni ) are endemic to the Mexican Plateau and have been listed as globally endangered. The breeding biology of these sparrows is poorly understood, and nesting is only known to occur at three locations (Las Esperanzas, Nuevo León, and La India and Tanque de Emergencia, Coahuila). In June and July 2006, we searched for nests of  Worthen's Sparrows and located three new breeding localities: La Carbonera and San Rafael in the state of Nuevo León, and San José del Alamito in the state of Coahuila. We subsequently sampled vegetation where nests were located and, on 26 August 2006, conducted surveys along 1-km transects at the three new breeding locations as well as at El Erial-La Casita, Nuevo León. We recorded the most Worthen's Sparrows at El Erial-La Casita ( N = 33), followed by San José del Alamito ( N = 9), San Rafael ( N = 6), and La Carbonera ( N = 3). No nests were located at El Erial-La Casita, but small groups of sparrows that included juveniles were observed. At the three breeding locations, shrub strata were dominated by tarbush ( Flourensia cernua ; San José del Alamito and La Carbonera) and Berlandier's wolfberry ( Lycium berlandieri ; San Rafael). Most (68%) recently recorded nests for this species have been found in tarbush. Historical and recent data (including our study) suggest that Worthen's Sparrows typically breed in grassland habitat where shrubs of some type are also present. Because conversion of land to agriculture continues to be a major threat to grasslands in northeastern Mexico, we recommend that conservation efforts be implemented to protect the known breeding areas of Worthen's Sparrow.     

Habitat fragmentation in coastal southern California disrupts genetic connectivity in the cactus wren (Campylorhynchus brunneicapillus)

Achieving long‐term persistence of species in urbanized landscapes requires characterizing population genetic structure to understand and manage the effects of anthropogenic disturbance on connectivity. Urbanization over the past century in coastal southern California has caused both precipitous loss of coastal sage scrub habitat and declines in populations of the cactus wren (Campylorhynchus brunneicapillus). Using 22 microsatellite loci, we found that remnant cactus wren aggregations in coastal southern California comprised 20 populations based on strict exact tests for population differentiation, and 12 genetic clusters with hierarchical Bayesian clustering analyses. Genetic structure patterns largely mirrored underlying habitat availability, with cluster and population boundaries coinciding with fragmentation caused primarily by urbanization. Using a habitat model we developed, we detected stronger associations between habitat‐based distances and genetic distances than Euclidean geographic distance. Within populations, we detected a positive association between available local habitat and allelic richness and a negative association with relatedness. Isolation‐by‐distance patterns varied over the study area, which we attribute to temporal differences in anthropogenic landscape development. We also found that genetic bottleneck signals were associated with wildfire frequency. These results indicate that habitat fragmentation and alterations have reduced genetic connectivity and diversity of cactus wren populations in coastal southern California. Management efforts focused on improving connectivity among remaining populations may help to ensure population persistence.     

Cost‐effective ecological restoration

Ecological restoration is a multibillion dollar industry critical for improving degraded habitat. However, most restoration is conducted without clearly defined success measures or analysis of costs. Outcomes are influenced by environmental conditions that vary across space and time, yet such variation is rarely considered in restoration planning. Here, we present a cost‐effectiveness analysis of terrestrial restoration methods to determine how practitioners may restore the highest native plant cover per dollar spent. We recorded costs of 120 distinct methods and described success in terms of native versus non‐native plant germination, growth, cover, and density. We assessed effectiveness using a basic, commonly used metric (% native plant cover) and developed an index of cost‐effectiveness (% native cover per dollar spent on restoration). We then evaluated success of multiple methods, given environmental variation across topography and multiple years, and found that the most successful method for restoring high native plant cover is often different from the method that results in the largest area restored per dollar expended, given fixed mitigation budgets. Based on our results, we developed decision‐making trees to guide practitioners through established phases of restoration—site preparation, seeding and planting, and maintenance. We also highlight where additional research could inform restoration practice, such as improved seasonal weather forecasts optimizing allocation of funds in time or valuation practices that include costs of specific outcomes in the collection of in lieu fees.