The carotenoid pigments in the juice and flavedo of a mandarin hybrid (Citrus reticulata) cv michal during ripening

The carotenoid pigments ofthe mandarin hybrid (Citrus reticulata) cv Michal, in the juice and flavedo were characterized at three ripening stages, before, during and after colour break. During ripening the characteristic mandarin pattern was formed in the juice, which contained cryptoxanthin as the principal pigment. In the flavedo the chloroplast carotenoid pattern of the green fruit changed into the characteristic pattern of C. reticulata with a high level of citraurin which, together with cryptoxanthin, imparts an intensive reddish tint to the hybrid. The flavedo contained an unusual C₃₀ apocarotenoid, β-citraurinene (8′-apo-β-caroten-3-ol). The flavedo carotenoids of this accidental hybrid were compared with the carotenoids of the presumed parents Dancy tangerine and Clementine. The hybrid resembles more the second parent, from which it inherited the ability to biosynthesize a higher amount of citraurin as well as citraurinene. Citraurinene, considered a Citrus hybrid-specific pigment, was found for the first time in a Citrus variety. A possible biosynthetic pathway of the Citrus C₃₀ -apocarotenoids is proposed.     

Hormonal changes associated with fruit set and development in mandarins differing in their parthenocarpic ability

Satsuma [Citrus unshiu (Mak) Marc.] and Clementine [Citrus reticulata (Hort.) Ex. Tanaka, cv. Oroval] are two related species of seedless mandarins which differ in their tendency to set parthenocarpic fruits. Satsuma fruits naturally set parthenocarpically whereas Clementine mandarins show very low ability to set fruit in the absence of cross-pollination. The endogenous levels of gibberellins (GAs) and free and conjugated indole-acetic acid (IAA) and abscisic acid (ABA) throughout early stages of fruit development were investigated in seedless cultivars of both species. Analyses performed by full-scan combined gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) of extracts from ovaries at anthesis demonstrated the presence of GA₁₉, GA₂₀, GA₂₉, GA₁, GA₈, GA₃ and iso-GA₃ in Satsuma mandarin, whereas only GA₂₉, GA₃ and trace levels of GA₈ were detected in Clementine. At this developmental stage GA-like substances, as estimated by bioassay, reached their highest levels in Satsuma, while Clementine mandarins contained relatively lower levels. In both species the highest levels of free IAA were found at petal-fall stage at which time free ABA levels also peaked. Developing fruits of Clementine had higher amounts of both free IAA and ABA. In Satsuma, levels of conjugated IAA remained low throughout reproductive development whereas in Clementine they increased as the free form declined. In contrast, conjugated ABA was at low levels in Clementine but reached higher concentrations in Satsuma. These results suggest that in these mandarins the potential for setting parthenocarpic fruits is mainly influenced by the hormonal status of the fruit during the later stages of cell division and early stages of cell enlargement. Thus, the condition of low ability to set parthenocarpic fruits appears to be associated with lower levels of active GAs, lower capability to catabolize ABA to conjugated ABA and higher ability to conjugate IAA during this period.     

Combined effect of gamma radiation,hot water and sodium bicarbonate on quality and chemical constituents of stored mandarin fruits

The combined effect of gamma radiation and both hot water and sodium carbonate on physiological decay and chemical constituents of stored mandarin fruits was investigated in this work. In this consideration, the studied fruits were gamma irradiated at doses of 0, 0.3, 0.6, 1.2 and 2.4 KGy. Then, the irradiated and non-irradiated fruits were treated either by hot water or sodium bicarbonate to examine their capacity to give a further maintenance and increasing shelf life or storage periods of mandarin. Treated and non-treated fruit samples were taken at intervals of 10 days and up to 60 days. Physiological decay, total acidity, vitamin C, total sugars and TSS were investigated during the different intervals. Gamma radiation treatments showed a promising effect for maintaining the studied fruits and retarding the development of decay. On the other hand, applying both hot water and sodium bicarbonate as a further combined treatments induced a powerful effect on delaying decay development, keeping the chemical constituents near to the normal level and in turn maximizing shelf life and storage periods of the fruits under investigation.     

Biocontrol of green and blue molds in postharvest satsuma mandarin using Bacillus amyloliquefaciens JBC36

In order to control postharvest rot of satsuma mandarin (mandarin) fruits, a new strain of Bacillus amyloliquefaciens JBC36 (JBC36) was isolated from rhizosphere of a mandarin orchard and tested for its suppression of decay due to green and blue molds caused by Penicillium digitatum and Penicillium italicum, respectively, and its mode of action was investigated. In addition, carnauba wax-based and paraffin oil-based coating formulations were developed to increase the control efficacy of the antagonist. The strain JBC36 at 10⁸ CFU mL^?1 inhibited incidence of green and blue molds on wounded mandarin fruits with control efficacies of 88 and 80.2%, respectively. Mycelial growth and spore germination of P. digitatum and P. italicum were strongly inhibited in the presence of JBC36 or antagonistic metabolites. In order to determine antifungal activity, three kinds of antibiotics were isolated by reverse-phase high performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC) and identified as lipopeptide families, iturin A, fengycin and surfactin by RP-HPLC and thin-layer chromatography (TLC) analysis. Fengycin was further identified as C16 fengycin A by liquid chromatography/electrospray ionisation-mass spectrometry (LC/ESI-MS) and mass spectrometry/mass spectrometry (MS/MS) analysis. Volatile organic compounds from the antagonist also reduced the mycelial growth of P. digitatum and P. italicum. Carnauba wax-based and paraffin oil-based coating formulations containing 10⁸ CFU mL^?1 of JBC36 efficiently decreased the incidence of green mold with control efficacy of 91 and 80.9%, respectively. Overall, the antagonistic rhizobacterium JBC36 is a promising biocontrol agent for use in preventing postharvest spoilage of mandarin fruits by green and blue molds.     

Directional degradation of β-chitin by chitinase A1 revealed by a novel reducing end labelling technique

A novel procedure for labelling the molecular ends of β-chitin crystals has been established. By introducing a hydrazide derivative of biotin at the reducing end of a chitin chain, followed by a specific interaction between biotin and streptavidin coupled with a colloidal gold particle, the chain directionality of β-chitin microcrystals could be directly visualized by transmission electron microscopy. This method allowed to certify the parallelism of the chitin chains in the β-chitin microcrystals, and also to label the reducing tips of β-chitin microcrystals degraded by Bacillus circulans chitinase A1. With these substrates, the labelling occurred only at their tapered tip, which indicates that the digestion of these crystals proceeded from their reducing end. The generalization of this new labelling method to other polysaccharide crystals is discussed.     

Biocides application as a natural and safe alternative for treating and protecting citrus fruits

Liquid formulations (emulsifiable concentrates) were prepared from the essential oils of fennel, peppermint and caraway. Different concentrations of the formulated oils were prepared. The prepared concentrations were tested in vivo for their inhibitory activity against the growth of Penicillium digitatum (the casual agent of green rot on citrus fruits). The results demonstrated that different concentrations of the formulated fennel, peppermint and caraway oils exerted highly toxicity against the inoculated fungus. Moreover, all formulated oils with different forms showed high activity for controlling the decay when applied as protective or therapeutic agents.     

Delay of early fruitlet abscission by branch girdling in citrus coincides with previous increases in carbohydrate and gibberellin concentrations

Current evidence in citrus indicates that gibberellins (GAs) are main determinants of early fruit set while subsequent growth of developing fruits is mostly dependent upon carbohydrate availability. In this work, branch girdling performed at anthesis in Satsuma mandarin (Citrus unshiu (Mak.) Marc.) cv. Okitsu transitorily reduced early abscission rates (12–32 days after anthesis, DAA) delaying initially the process of natural fruitlet drop. The effects of girdling on growth, gibberellin (GA) and carbohydrate concentrations in developing ovaries and fruitlets were assessed during this initial growth stage (0–69 DAA). In girdled branches, abscission rate reduction was preceded by elevated concentrations of carbohydrate and GA in developing ovaries and fruitlets. Girdling at anthesis stimulated higher hexose (21 DAA) and starch (6–20 DAA) concentrations and also higher GA₁ (6 DAA), GA₁₉ (13–20 DAA) and GA₂₀ (6–20 DAA). The results established a relationship between the reduction of early abscission rates and higher concentrations of carbohydrates and GAs induced by girdling in developing fruitlets. These findings revealed that girdling certainly increased GA concentration and strongly suggested that its effect on early fruitlet abscission delay is likely mediated by both GA and carbohydrates.     

Pollen-pistil interactions and early fruiting in parthenocarpic citrus

Background and Aims

An intense pollen–pistil interaction precedes fertilization. This interaction is of particular relevance in agronomically important species where seeds or fruits are the edible part. Over time some agronomically species have been selected for the ability to produce fruit without seeds. While this phenomenon is critical for commercial production in some species, very little is known about the events behind the production of seedless fruit. In this work, the relationship between pollen–pistil interaction and the onset of fruiting was investigated in citrus mandarin.

Methods

Pistils were sequentially examined in hand-pollinated flowers paying attention to pollen-tube behaviour, and to cytochemical changes along the pollen-tube pathway. To evaluate which of these changes were induced by pollination/fertilization and which were developmentally regulated, pollinated and unpollinated pistils were compared. Also the onset of fruiting was timed and changes in the ovary examined.

Key Results

Conspicuous changes occurred in the pistil along the pollen-tube pathway, which took place in a basipetal way encompassing the timing of pollen-tube growth. However, these changes appear to be developmentally regulated as they happened in the same way and at the same time in unpollinated flowers. Moreover, the onset of fruiting occurred prior to fertilization and the very same changes could be observed in unpollinated flowers.

Conclusions

Pollen–pistil interaction in citrus showed similarities with unrelated species and families belonging to other taxa. The uncoupling of the reproductive and fruiting processes accounts for the parthenocarpic ability of unpollinated flowers to produce fruit in citrus. However, the maintenance of a functional reproductive process reflects the potential to produce seeded fruits, providing a basis for the understanding of the production of seeded or unseeded fruits and further understanding of the process of parthenocarpy in other species.     

高温强光对温州蜜柑叶绿素荧光、D1蛋白和Deg1蛋白酶的影响及SA效应

以3年生温州蜜柑（Citrus unishiu Marc.）植株为试材,用叶绿素荧光分析、Western-blotting蛋白质印记技术及DAB（3,3'-二氨基联苯胺）显色法,研究了高温强光（38℃和1600 μmol?m-2?s-1）对叶片叶绿素荧光参数、PS（光系统）II反应中心D1蛋白和Deg1蛋白酶的影响和SA（水杨酸）的效应。结果表明,高温强光交互作用4 h后,叶片的初始荧光Fo升高,最大光能转化效率Fv/Fm、表观光合电子传递速率ETR及PSII的量子产额ΦPSII显著降低,在D1蛋白降解的同时,Deg1蛋白酶含量也下降,并伴有H2O2的积累。在高温强光下,外源的H2O2使叶绿素荧光动力学快相参数(Fi-Fo)/(Fp-Fo)值（反映PSII中QB非还原中心的数量）升高和I-P的斜率（反映PSII 活化中心还原态QA积累的值）下降,Fv/Fm、ETR、ΦPSII及D1蛋白和Deg1蛋白酶下降幅度增大;而外源的SA使这些参数下降幅度减小。这些结果说明,高温强光诱导H2O2的积累造成Deg1蛋白酶和光系统反应中心D1蛋白的降解,Deg1蛋白酶的减少也进一步限制了D1蛋白的周转,进而使温州蜜柑PSII反应中心遭到破坏,SA对光合机构光破坏有保护作用。     

Degradation of mikan (Japanese mandarin orange) peel by a novel Penicillium species with cellulolytic and pectinolytic activity

AIMS: The mikan, or Japanese mandarin orange, is a popular fruit in Japan, but its peel is one of the major agricultural wastes. The aims of this study were to screen, isolate, and characterize a mikan peel-degrading microbe. METHODS AND RESULTS: Several samples including activated sludge, sediment, compost and spoiled mikan peel were collected and cultured in a minimal salt medium containing mikan peel as the sole carbon source. Degradation activity was found in a culture of the spoiled mikan peel, and a fungal strain, designated OP1, with both cellulolytic and pectinolytic activity was isolated. No toxic metabolites, such as mycotoxins, were found in OP1 cultures, as evaluated by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. A phylogenetic analysis strongly suggested that OP1 is a novel species of the genus Penicillium. CONCLUSIONS: Results suggest that Penicillium sp. OP1 plays an important role in aerobic microbial degradation of cellulose/pectin-rich biomasses in soil ecology, and further imply that this strain may be useful for both simultaneous cellulase/pectinase production and reduction of agricultural waste. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: The present results advance our understanding of microbial degradation of cellulose/pectin-rich biomasses in the natural environment, and offer a new tool for reduction of agricultural waste, which is important for sustaining circulatory societies.