Nuclear and atomic analytical techniques in environmental studies in South America

The use of nuclear analytical techniques for environmental studies in South America is selectively reviewed since the time of earlier works of Lattes with cosmic rays until the recent applications of the PIXE (particle-induced X-ray emission) technique to study air pollution problems in large cities, such as São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro. The studies on natural radioactivity and fallout from nuclear weapons in South America are briefly examined.

     

High-performance liquid chromatography of iodine-labeled insulin and glucagon derivatives with on-line γ-detection

Insulin and glucagon were labeled with iodine. The reaction products were analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography. It is shown that the pH of the reaction medium has a large effect on the position and the degree of iodine substitution as well as on the oxidation of the Met-containing glucagon and, furthermore, that the molar ratio of iodine to polypeptide hormone used during the labeling procedure affects not only the amount of iodine incorporated but also the distribution of iodinated products. The results show that certain iodinated derivatives are separated from each other and from the respective unlabeled polypeptide and thus can be obtained in a pure state.     

A method for the estimation of amino acid radioactivity in biological samples

A method for quantitative estimation of total radioactivity present in the free amino acid fraction of tissue samples has been described. Samples deproteinized with cold acetone were extracted, in acidic medium, with ethyl (peroxide free); after centrifugation, the aqueous phase was used for amino acid derivatization at 40°C for 15 h with 1-flouro-2,4-dinitrobenzene in bicarbonate-buffered medium. Aliquots of the derivatized samples were acidified and extracted twice again with ethyl ether. The combined organic phases were placed in glass scintilation vials, dried, and used for the determination of its radiactivity, corresponding to the radioactivity present in the free amino acid fraction of the sample. Deproteinized samples of rat blood plasma, as well as hen egg white and yolk were tested after addition of known quantities of ¹⁴C-labelled amino acids or glucose, for validation of the method. No glucose radioactivity was found in any of the extracted samples. All radioactivity added to the samples in the form of ¹⁴C-labelled alanine, glutamic acid, leucine and phenylalanine was quantitatively recovered in the derivatized fraction; only a fraction of arginine radioactivity was recovered.     

Quantitative aspects of oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange through the lungs in Ocypode ceratophthalmus (Crustacea: Decapoda) during rest and exercise in water and air

Ghost crabs Ocypode ceratophthalmus were exercised in air and water to measure CO₂ and O₂ exchange rates using the method of instantaneous measurements of oxygen consumption rate (MO₂) where applicable. Average heart rate increased from 100 to nearly 400 pulses per minute after five minutes of exercise on a treadmill at a run rate of 0.133 m s^?1. It took less than a minute for oxygen taken up through the lung epithelium from the air inside the branchial cavity to reach the maximal oxygen consumption rate of 26.1 mmol O₂ kg^?1 h^?1. Resting MO₂ was 4.06 mmol O₂ kg^?1 h^?1 in air, but decreased to 3.37 mmol O₂ kg^?1 h^?1 in seawater. Radioactive CO₂ from injected l-lactate is released linearly by the lung. The percent accumulated 14-CO₂ in exhaled air, plotted against time, intersects zero time on the x -axis, indicating rapid gas exchange at the lung surface. The P ₅₀ values for native haemocyanin of 4.89 mm Hg before exercise, and 8.99 mm Hg after exercise, are typical of a high-affinity haemocyanin usually associated with terrestrial crabs. The current notion that Ocypode ceratophthalmus drown when submerged in seawater was not substantiated by our experiments. MO₂ in seawater increased from 3.37 mmol O₂ kg^?1 h^?1 for resting crabs to 5.72 mmol O₂ kg^?1 h^?1 during exercise. When submerged by wave-seawater in the natural environment and during exercise in respirometer-seawater O. ceratophthalmus do not swim but, having a specific density of 1.044, float nearly weightless with a minimum of body movements.     

Radioactivity as a Significant Energy Source in Prebiotic Synthesis

Radioactivity in the continental crust (due mainly to the isotopes ²³⁸U,²³⁵U, ²³²Th and ⁴⁰K), as a energysource for chemical evolution in the early Archean (between 3.5 and 4 Ga bp), is reviewed.The most important radioactive sourcein the continental crust is due to theproduction and accumulation of radioactivegases within the crust voids (porosity). Thestudy of such mechanism has allowed us toreach a deeper understanding about the nature of the radioactive source and to describe itsbehavior, particularly with regard to prebiotic chemical evolution. An effectivetotal energy of 3 × 10^{18 Ja -1} hasbeen obtained for a depth of 1 km, 4 Ga ago. If a depth of 30 km is taken, the obtained valueis almost equal to the UV solar energyradiation (<150 nm). Within thevoids the radioactive source of thecontinental crust played a relevant role inprebiotic synthesis. In uraniumdeposits of the same age, the role ofradiactivity must have been even more relevantin favoring chemical evolution.     

Transfer and fate of male ejaculate in female Queensland fruit flies

Abstract Insect seminal fluid commonly comprises a complex cocktail of proteins and other biochemical components that migrate away from the female reproductive tract to sites elsewhere in the female body and elicit changes in female reproductive behaviour. The transfer of male seminal fluid molecules to reproductive and somatic tissues of the female Queensland fruit fly (‘Q‐fly’) Bactrocera tryoni is examined and some putative target sites identified. Male Q‐flies are fed a diet containing radiolabelled (³⁵S) amino acids, which are incorporated into male accessory gland products. Radioactivity diminishes within the accessory glands and increases in all assessed parts of the female body during copulation, indicating the transfer of these products into the female soma via the reproductive tract. There are significant changes in the absolute and proportional radioactivity profiles among female tissues over the next 22 h, with substantial reductions in the thorax and increases in the head. This is consistent with accumulation of behaviour‐modifying male products at binding sites in the female head. Parallels can be drawn between the data in the present study and seminal fluid distribution profiles and receptor binding documented in other insects.     

Speciation and Bioavailability Measurements of Environmental Plutonium Using Diffusion in Thin Films

The biological uptake of plutonium (Pu) in aquatic ecosystems is of particular concern since it is an alpha-particle emitter with long half-life which can potentially contribute to the exposure of biota and humans. The diffusive gradients in thin films technique is introduced here for in-situ measurements of Pu bioavailability and speciation. A diffusion cell constructed for laboratory experiments with Pu and the newly developed protocol make it possible to simulate the environmental behavior of Pu in model solutions of various chemical compositions. Adjustment of the oxidation states to Pu(IV) and Pu(V) described in this protocol is essential in order to investigate the complex redox chemistry of plutonium in the environment. The calibration of this technique and the results obtained in the laboratory experiments enable to develop a specific DGT device for in-situ Pu measurements in freshwaters. Accelerator-based mass-spectrometry measurements of Pu accumulated by DGTs in a karst spring allowed determining the bioavailability of Pu in a mineral freshwater environment. Application of this protocol for Pu measurements using DGT devices has a large potential to improve our understanding of the speciation and the biological transfer of Pu in aquatic ecosystems.     

Thermal and resonance neutrons generated by various electron and X-ray therapeutic beams from medical linacs installed in polish oncological centers

BackgroundHigh-energy photon and electron therapeutic beams generated in medical linear accelerators can cause the electronuclear and photonuclear reactions in which neutrons with a broad energy spectrum are produced. A low-energy component of this neutron radiation induces simple capture reactions from which various radioisotopes originate and in which the radioactivity of a linac head and various objects in the treatment room appear.AimThe aim of this paper is to present the results of the thermal/resonance neutron fluence measurements during therapeutic beam emission and exemplary spectra of gamma radiation emitted by medical linac components activated in neutron reactions for four X-ray beams and for four electron beams generated by various manufacturers’ accelerators installed in typical concrete bunkers in Polish oncological centers.Materials and methodsThe measurements of neutron fluence were performed with the use of the induced activity method, whereas the spectra of gamma radiation from decays of the resulting radioisotopes were measured by means of a portable high-purity germanium detector set for field spectroscopy.ResultsThe fluence of thermal neutrons as well as resonance neutrons connected with the emission of a 20 MV X-ray beam is ～10⁶ neutrons/cm² per 1 Gy of a dose in water at a reference depth. It is about one order of magnitude greater than that for the 15 MV X-ray beams and about two orders of magnitude greater than for the 18–22 MeV electron beams regardless of the type of an accelerator.ConclusionThe thermal as well as resonance neutron fluence depends strongly on the type and the nominal potential of a therapeutic beam. It is greater for X-ray beams than for electrons. The accelerator accessories and other large objects should not be stored in a treatment room during high-energy therapeutic beam emission to avoid their activation caused by thermal and resonance neutrons. Half-lives of the radioisotopes originating from the simple capture reaction (n,γ) (from minutes to hours) are long enough to accumulate radioactivity of components of the accelerator head. The radiation emitted by induced radioisotopes causes the additional doses to staff operating the accelerators.     

Design and operation of a completely automated Beckman microsequencer

A unique, efficient, and inexpensive system has been designed and built for the automatic conversion of anilinothiazolinone derivatives extracted from a Beckman spinning-cup sequencer with subsequent on-line high-pressure liquid chromatography separation of the phenylthiohydantoin derivatives. The Auto Converter-Auto Sampler system is controlled by a tape programmer or microprocessor and operates by transfer of the sample from the conversion vial into an HPLC injection loop by nitrogen pressure. Incorporation of a minor programming change on the sequencer allows the introduction of nitrogen vapor into the spinning cup during phenylisothiocyanate coupling. These modifications have resulted in a completely automated subnanomole protein sequencer.