Reply to the first systematic response by the Global Footprint Network to criticism: A real debate finally?

We respond to a reaction of the Global Footprint Network/GFN on our 8-point criticism of the ecological footprint. We also refer to, and comment on, an associated debate in this journal between Giampietro and Saltelli, 2014a, Giampietro and Saltelli, 2014b, on the one hand, and Goldfinger et al. (2014), on the other. We conclude that criticism on the footprint is accumulating and coherent across the various studies and disciplines and among the different authors. This was the first time that Wackernagel/GFN systematically responded to our criticisms. Hence, our response contains several original elements and the resulting exchange can be seen to add value to the existing literature. It ultimately allows readers to better make up their mind about the different viewpoints on the ecological footprint.     

Attachment styles impact on pet visitation effectiveness

Abstract

This paper describes a field study on the effects of attachment styles on the subjective well-being of institutionalized older persons after participating in a pet visitation program. We compared how attachment style (i.e., secure, anxious ambivalent, dismissive avoidant, and fearful avoidant) moderated the impact of a dog visitation program in 52 elderly residents of an assisted-living facility. Controlling for pre-visitation mood, the results revealed that the secure style related to increases in positive mood after interacting with the dogs. The anxious ambivalent style related to increases in positive mood and decreases in ratings of depression. Most importantly, the fearful avoidant style related to increases in depression after interacting with the dogs. The results highlight the notion that not all participants benefit from taking part in pet visitation programs. Theoretically, this study presents preliminary evidence for the relevance of attachment styles in understanding human–pet interactions.     

A comparison of life history traits of sexual and asexual strains of the parasitoid wasp,Lysiphlebus fabarum (Braconidae: Aphidiinae)

1. This study examined biological characteristics of sexual and asexual strains of the parasitoid wasp, Lysiphlebus fabarum (Marshall) (Hymenoptera: Braconidae). 2. Strains were reared in different instar hosts (the black bean aphid, Aphis fabae Scopoli) under identical environmental conditions (21 °C, 65–75% RH, and LD 16:8 h). 3. Results showed that the second instar of the aphid is the most suitable growth stage for both strains, as the wasps that emerged from the second instar hosts were larger, more fecund, and had larger egg size. Trade‐offs between the fitness components of the parasitoid were clearer when the parasitoids were reared in suboptimal instars. 4. According to the results, sexual females emerged around 1 day earlier and lived around 0.5 day less than asexual females. Also, sexual females emerged with a lower initial egg load, although these wasps tend to have larger eggs than asexual females. Asexual females may enjoy greater longevity and higher developmental plasticity which suggests a higher degree of synchronization with pest population dynamism. 5. The results suggest that sexual wasps, in contrast to asexual wasps, invest more in egg size than in egg load. This study suggests strain‐specific adaptations of L. fabarum to different instars of the black bean aphid by which the allocation of nutritional resources to various functions differs between strains. 6. Furthermore, differences in life history traits between strains can greatly influence the population dynamics of each strain, and hence their effectiveness in suppressing pest populations.     

Conservation,protected areas and the global economic system: how debt,trade, exchange rates,inflation and macroeconomic policy affect biological diversity

The main characteristics of the dominant economic system, including the increasing use of markets and money are described. The global system has expanded trade, including international trade, and production tremendously. While this system has the potential to favour nature conservation, in practice the opposite has occurred. Difficulties raised for conservation of biodiversity by short-term economic crises such as deficits in a country's international payments, the adoption of policies for structural economic adjustment, international capital flows, international loans and foreign aid as well as debt-for-nature swaps are discussed. As explained, it is politically difficult in market economies to support nature conservation at the expense of economic growth and as more economies develop and become market economies this problem spreads. Given global interdependence of nations, an important issue is the distribution of net benefits from biodiversity conservation between developed and less developed countries. Possible distributions of benefits and related issues are discussed. In conclusion, the importance of political lobbying by nature conservation groups in developed market economies is emphasised as a means of ensuring correction of market failures. Unfortunately, no economic system is likely to prove satisfactory in itself in conserving biodiversity so political action by conservationists is always required.     

Evidence for growth ofSporothrix schenckii on dead but not on living sphagnum moss

When clinical isolates ofSporothrix schenckii were inoculated onto the apices of living or dead sphagnum moss plants maintained under growth chamber conditions, populations of the fungus, assessed by standard dilution plate methods, increased swiftly up to about 70-fold on moist, dead plants but did not increase on the live moss. Light and scanning electron microscopy revealed fungal growth and sporulation on and within dead plants, but no evidence of either on live plants. These data provide indirect support for the contention thatS. schenckii does not grow on living sphagnum in bogs, but rather that sporotrichosis epidemics associated with sphagnum moss are likely to result from contamination of the dead plants at some point(s) in the chain of events during or after harvest. One practical implication of our results is that precautions should be taken to insure that sphagnum moss is stored dry and that it is not wetted any sooner than necessary before use. We also report here improvement of the Mycose isolation medium by an increase in cycloheximide from 400 to 800 mg/l, chloramphenicol from 50 to 250 mg/l, and the addition of rifampicin at 20 mg/l.     

Human-modified landscapes driving the global primate extinction crisis

The world's primates have been severely impacted in diverse and profound ways by anthropogenic pressures. Here, we evaluate the impact of various infrastructures and human-modified landscapes on spatial patterns of primate species richness, at both global and regional scales. We overlaid the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) range maps of 520 primate species and applied a global 100 km² grid. We used structural equation modeling and simultaneous autoregressive models to evaluate direct and indirect effects of six human-altered landscapes variables (i.e., human footprint [HFP], croplands [CROP], road density [ROAD], pasture lands [PAST], protected areas [PAs], and Indigenous Peoples' lands [IPLs]) on global primate species richness, threatened and non-threatened species, as well as on species with decreasing and non-decreasing populations. Two-thirds of all primate species are classified as threatened (i.e., Critically Endangered, Endangered, and Vulnerable), with ~86% experiencing population declines, and ~84% impacted by domestic or international trade. We found that the expansion of PAST, HFP, CROP, and road infrastructure had the most direct negative effects on primate richness. In contrast, forested habitat within IPLs and PAs was positively associated in safeguarding primate species diversity globally, with an even stronger effect at the regional level. Our results show that IPLs and PAs play a critical role in primate species conservation, helping to prevent their extinction; in contrast, HFP growth and expansion has a dramatically negative effect on primate species worldwide. Our findings support predictions that the continued negative impact of anthropogenic pressures on natural habitats may lead to a significant decline in global primate species richness, and likely, species extirpations. We advocate for stronger national and international policy frameworks promoting alternative/sustainable livelihoods and reducing persistent anthropogenic pressures to help mitigate the extinction risk of the world's primate species.     

The ecological drivers and consequences of wildlife trade

Wildlife trade is a key driver of extinction risk, affecting at least 24% of terrestrial vertebrates. The persistent removal of species can have profound impacts on species extinction risk and selection within populations. We draw together the first review of characteristics known to drive species use – identifying species with larger body sizes, greater abundance, increased rarity or certain morphological traits valued by consumers as being particularly prevalent in trade. We then review the ecological implications of this trade-driven selection, revealing direct effects of trade on natural selection and populations for traded species, which includes selection against desirable traits. Additionally, there exists a positive feedback loop between rarity and trade and depleted populations tend to have easy human access points, which can result in species being harvested to extinction and has the potential to alter source–sink dynamics. Wider cascading ecosystem repercussions from trade-induced declines include altered seed dispersal networks, trophic cascades, long-term compositional changes in plant communities, altered forest carbon stocks, and the introduction of harmful invasive species. Because it occurs across multiple scales with diverse drivers, wildlife trade requires multi-faceted conservation actions to maintain biodiversity and ecological function, including regulatory and enforcement approaches, bottom-up and community-based interventions, captive breeding or wildlife farming, and conservation translocations and trophic rewilding. We highlight three emergent research themes at the intersection of trade and community ecology: (1) functional impacts of trade; (2) altered provisioning of ecosystem services; and (3) prevalence of trade-dispersed diseases. Outside of the primary objective that exploitation is sustainable for traded species, we must urgently incorporate consideration of the broader consequences for other species and ecosystem processes when quantifying sustainability.     

Effect of alteration of the acetic acid synthesis pathway on the fermentation pattern of escherichia coli

The glucose metabolism of an Escherichia coli strain bearing mutations abolishing both acetyl phosphotransferase (PTA) and acetate kinase (ACK) activities was studied under aerobic and anaerobic conditions. These studies were conducted in a complex medium with the mutant carrying no plasmid, the mutant carrying the common cloning vector pUC19, and the mutant carrying a plasmid bearing the "pet" operon that encodes Zymomonas mobilis pyruvate decarboxylase and alcohol dehydrogenase activities. The mutant carrying no plasmid showed lower specific growth and glucose uptake rates relative to the parent wild-type strain (K-12), Lactic acid was produced at higher levels than the wild type, and considerable amounts of pyruvic acid were secreted as an unusual byproduct. Analysis of other fermentation products showed low but significant amounts of acetic acid, no accumulation of formic acid, and lower secretion of succinate and ethanol. The maintenance of the plasmid pUC19 in the mutant negatively affected metabolism. Expression of the pet operon overcame the metabolic stress caused by the plasmid, enhancing growth and glucose uptake rates to the values observed in the plasmidfree mutant. Also, expression of the pet operon allowed consumption of pyruvate accumulated during the first hours of fermentation.     

Covalent binding of polychlorinated biphenyls to proteins by reconstituted monooxygenase system containing cytochrome P-450

Incubation in the presence of NADPH and molecular oxygen of ¹⁴C-labeled polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and two tetrachlorobiphenyl (TCB) isomers with a reconstituted system containing NADPH-cytochrome P-450 reductase and cytochrome P-450, both purified from liver microsomes of phenobarbital(PB)-pretreated rabbits, led to covalent binding of radioactive metabolites of PCBs and TCBs to the protein components of the system. A rabbit liver cytosol fraction added to the system provided more binding sites for the activated metabolites and thus increased the extent of binding markedly. The binding reaction depended absolutely on the reductase, cytochrome P-450 and NADPH, and required dilauroyl phosphatidylcholine and sodium cholate for maximal activity. A further stimulation of the binding was attained by including cytochrome b₅ in the reconstituted system. Four forms of cytochrome P-450, purified from liver microsomes of PB- and 3-methylcholanthrene(MC)-treated rabbits and rats, were used to reconstitute the PCB- and TCB-metabolizing systems, and it was found that PB-inducible forms of the cytochrome from both animals were more active than those inducible by MC in catalyzing the PCB- and TCB-binding reaction. Sodium dodecyl sulfate(SDS)-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis indicated that, in the system containing the reductase, cytochrome P-450 and cytochrome b₅, PCB metabolites bound to the reductase and cytochrome P-450, but not to cytochrome b₅. In the presence of the liver cytosol fraction, the binding took place to many cytosolic proteins in addition to the reductase and cytochrome P-450.     

Keeping reptiles as pets in Brazil: Ethnozoological and conservation aspects

Regardless of many legal restrictions, the keeping of and trade in reptiles as pets has been increasing in Brazil over the last few years. We present an analysis of the trade and use of reptiles as pets in Brazil and discuss the implications. Data were obtained through semi-structured questionnaires given to 719 owners, who were contacted through reptile-owner groups on the social network Facebook. A total of 69 reptile species were reported as pets in Brazil, of which there were 39 snakes, 17 lizards, 12 chelonians and 1 species of crocodilian. Of the reported species, 46 are native to Brazil and 23 are exotic, including threatened species. Owners were distributed in at least 24 states, with a higher concentration in Southeast Brazil and the Federal District. Owners usually acquire animals through purchase, although prices vary and are high for some species, making reptile ownership more common among high-income individuals. Prices were affected by factors such as beauty, colour pattern, size, sex and even rarity. The keeping of reptiles as pets raises conservation concerns, as the practice directly impacts exploited populations and is a potential introduction pathway for invasive species, including exotic species that have already been recorded in natural habitats in Brazil. A thorough discussion, encompassing various stakeholders — namely, owners, traders and environmental authorities — is much needed, to address management strategies, and propose feasible solutions. Conservation and animal welfare NGOs should also be involved in this process.