Daily rhythm and seasonal pattern of lick use in sika deer (Cervus nippon) in China

Many ungulates are reported to use natural or artificial licks with seasonal patterns around the world. From December 2016 to August 2017, we used infrared camera to record the use of artificial licks in wild sika deer (Cervus nippon) in Zhejiang Qingliangfeng National Nature Reserve, China. We explored the daily rhythm, seasonal pattern and sex difference in lick utilization. In total, 12,043 videos and 22,901 pictures were collected. Our results showed that: (1) the lick visiting frequency was higher at night than that during daytime; (2) the difference in lick visiting frequency between females and males disappeared after taking into account of sex ratio; (3) the lick duration peaked in April during a year. These findings suggested that there were clear daily rhythm and seasonal pattern of lick use in sika deer. Seasonal change in lick use intensity was consistent with our prediction. These variations in lick use might be driven by both the physiological needs of the mineral elements in different life stages and the seasonal changes in climate and food. The reserve management authority should pay more attention to the supplement of licks in spring and summer to fulfill animal’s physiological needs.     

Collpas: Activity Hotspots for Frugivorous Bats (Phyllostomidae) in the Peruvian Amazon

In the SE Peruvian Amazon, large numbers of frugivorous bats regularly visit natural forest clearings known locally as collpas (which are also referred to as clay licks or mineral licks). Bats arrive at collpas to drink water that has accumulated in depressions created by larger geophagous mammals that consume exposed soil. Although collpa visitation is common, little is known about its causes and its ecological implications for the bat community. We compared patterns of use of collpas and non- collpa forest sites by bats in SE Peru. We mist netted bats at collpas and non- collpa sites during the dry season and compared abundance, species richness, species composition, sex ratio, and reproductive condition. More species were captured at collpas than at non- collpa sites, and collpas were visited almost exclusively by frugivores. Overall, bat-capture frequency and combined frugivorous bat-capture frequency were higher at collpas than at non- collpa sites, although some species of frugivorous bats were captured more frequently at non- collpa sites than at collpas ( e.g ., Carollia spp.). Irrespective of capture site, more female bats were pregnant or lactating than not, but there was a distinct female sex bias in bats that visited collpas : 70 percent of bats captured at collpas were female, whereas 44 percent of bats captured away from collpas were female. These patterns suggest that collpas may provide important resources for frugivorous bats in SE Peru, just as they are thought to provide important resources to the vertebrates that consume collpa soils. Accordingly, collpas are important conservation targets in the region.     

Parrot behavior at a Rio Manu (Peru) clay lick: temporal patterns,associations, and antipredator responses

Although eating clay at licks (a form of geophagy) has been described, there are few behavioral data on temporal patterns, social interactions, species associations, or reactions to potential predators. We examined the behavior of nine species of macaws, parrots, and parakeets at the Machiguenga Ccolpa, a clay lick on the Rio Manu, Peru in the dry season. Three distinct mixed-species groups used the licks: in the early morning (parrots and small macaws), in mid-morning (large macaws), and in the early afternoon (parakeets), although the latter two groups used the licks at other times of day as well. The first parrots to begin eating at the lick in the early morning were yellow-crowned parrots (Amazona ochrocephala) and dusky-headed parakeets (Aratinga weddellii), followed by blue-headed parrots Pionus sordidus, and then by mealy (Amazona farinosa) and orange-cheeked (Pionopsitta barrabandi) parrots, and chestnut-fronted macaws (Ara severa). Although blue-headed parrots fed in dense groups of over 50, the others rarely exceeded 20 individuals. Scarlet macaws (A. macao) sometimes fed alone or joined the early morning groups, but most associated with a large group of red and green macaws (A. chloroptera) that arrived, often scaring off the smaller birds. On average, about 100 macaws and parrots fed in the early morning, macaw feeding groups averaging just over 40, and the parakeets averaged over 70. Average time at the lick ranged from 28 min for yellow-crowned parrots to 47 min for tui parakeets. Of the early morning group, blue-headed and mealy parrots were the most aggressive and orange-cheeked parrots were the least aggressive. Red and green macaws were more aggressive than scarlet macaws; the parakeets were equally aggressive. All species had more aggressive interactions with conspecifics than with other species. Responses to intruders and predators varied by species of parrot/macaw and type of intruder. In response to intruders or loud calls, responses could be partial (some individuals flew away, circled, and returned), temporary (all individuals flew away but returned within a few minutes), or total (all flew away and abandoned feeding for at least a half hour). The large macaws showed the lowest rate of total abandonment and the parakeets showed the highest. People passing up or down river in boats scared birds from the lick. The local residents (Machiguenga tribespeople in boats) elicited a much greater response than did the researchers. In the recent past, macaws and parrots were hunted for food, feathers, and the pet trade, and the birds response, as well as the presence of parrot and macaw feathers in local villages we visited, suggests some continued exploitation, or a long-term memory in the birds.Communicated by R.F. Oliveira     

Feeding ecology of a large social antelope in the rainforest

We studied the feeding ecology of the bongo (Tragelaphus eurycerus) in the Dzanga National Park in the rainforest of the Central African Republic to understand better the trade-off between food selectivity, ranging behaviour and social organization of a large, forest-dwelling, social antelope. Food plants and vegetation types were registered along a 311-km route travelled by bongos. Food availability was determined by identifying and counting the plants in 19 randomly chosen forest plots. Bongos showed pronounced selectivity for 26 out of 100 woody forest species. They predominantly consumed younger leaves, which suggests that high protein and low fibre content influence plant choice. In addition to leaves, bongos also ate fruits of two and flowers of one species. Furthermore, the diet was supplemented by grasses and herbs consumed on large natural licks. Such licks were regularly visited by the bongos. According to Jarman's ecological classification of antelopes, selective browsers are relatively small and live alone or in pairs to avoid competition over food. The bongo's large size and gregariousness should not allow it to survive in the rainforest as a pure selective browser. Our data suggest that the bongo relies on the opportunity to graze in bulk which it finds on the natural licks. We hypothesize that such licks either limit the distribution of bongos in other rainforest areas or allow larger group sizes than in areas without licks. Received: 8 June 1998 / Accepted: 30 November 1998     

Diet and Geophagy Across a Western Amazonian Parrot Assemblage

We identified species‐ and community‐level dietary characteristics for a species‐rich Amazonian parrot assemblage to determine relationships among dietary metrics and use of geophagy sites. Previous studies suggest that soil is consumed at geophagy sites in this region mainly to supplement dietary sodium. We accumulated 1400 feeding records for 16 parrot species over 2 yr and found that seeds, flowers, and fruit pulp featured prominently in diets, while bark, insects, and lichen were consumed in small quantities. Food availability across 1819 trees was measured, and we found that flower availability was highest in the dry season and fruit production peaked in the wet season, but that phenology patterns of the 20 most commonly foraged plant species suggest no serious food bottlenecks. Partitioning of available food resources among the 13 most commonly encountered parrots is suggested by an ordination analysis (DCA), which placed the large macaws (Ara) with the Amazona parrots at the ‘primary forest’ end of a dietary resource axis and four smaller species at the ‘successional forest’ end of the axis. Parrot species associated with successional forest also consumed less plant species overall. Furthermore, these parrot species consuming successional forest resources had higher claylick visitation rates than those consuming primary forest resources suggesting they derive the greatest benefits from soil consumption.     

小麂秋季利用人工盐场的节律

舔食盐分是野生动物的常见习性,但针对具体物种的研究较少。我们于2013年秋季(9~10月份)利用4台红外触发相机在唐家河国家级自然保护区对小麂(Muntiacus reevesi)利用人工盐场的时间格局进行了初步研究。共收集照片记录398条,其中可鉴别性别的记录288条。结果显示,小麂日均访问盐场(12.97±2.14)次,舔盐高峰出现在8:00~9:00时以及14:00~16:00时,低谷分别出现在2:00时、6:00时以及21:00~23:00时。独立样本t检验显示,小麂对距离公路较远的盐场访问次数显著高于近公路盐场[远离公路盐场(10.86±2.25)次,近公路盐场(2.10±0.58)次,t=3.77,P=0.001]。不论以全天统计抑或按照不同时间段(上午、下午和夜间)分别统计,雌雄两性对盐场的利用强度均无显著差异。我们仅发现在13:00~17:00时,雄性访问盐场的强度显著高于雌性(t=﹣2.47,P=0.048),且在13:00~14:00时和15:00~16:00时出现两次访问高峰。我们推测性别间的活动节律差异、体型差异以及雄性的干扰,均可能是雌性在下午时段降低盐场利用的原因。人为活动对离公路近的栖息地干扰较强,因而影响了小麂对栖息地的利用,使小麂回避靠近公路的盐场。因此,我们建议自然保护区在选择盐场位置时应考虑人为干扰因素。     

Parrots Take it with a Grain of Salt: Available Sodium Content May Drive Collpa (Clay Lick) Selection in Southeastern Peru

Soils from 18 parrot collpas ('clay licks') in southeastern Peru averaged four times more available sodium than uneaten control soils. Collpa soils contained marginally more clay than control sites and clay content was uncorrelated with available sodium content. Parrots may select and ingest soils based on available sodium content.     

Geophagy and nutrient supplementation in the Ngorongoro Conservation Area, Tanzania, with particular reference to selenium, cobalt and molybdenum

Wildlife and livestock in the Ngorongoro Conservation Area (NCA), Tanzania, commonly practise geophagy. We investigated the nutrient content of nine earth licks and adjacent topsoils in the NCA, and for comparative purposes, two salt pans in north-eastern Tanzania, licks in central Tanzania and a lick near Puerto Maldonado, Peru. The licks had no consistent pattern of nutrient enrichment relative to unutilized topsoils, although the Na content of licks was greater than that of the adjacent topsoils at all but one site. The three largest licks in the NCA (Gibbs Farm, Seneto and Ascent Road) were enriched relative to topsoils and global averages in Se (maximum of 4.7 mg kg⁻¹), Co (maximum of 107 mg kg⁻¹) and/or Mo (maximum of 7.4 mg kg⁻¹). We suggest that licks do provide supplemental Na, but that Se, Co and/or Mo at the largest licks provide easily overlooked nutritional benefits and are perhaps the primary target for geophagy at these sites. Subsoil zones of clay deposition are likely to be enriched in various elements through illuviation or mineral precipitation from solution. Animals may use the taste of NaCl as a clue for locating such zones where they are likely to find a greater quantity of micronutrients relative to other soils. These findings have consequences for conservation and pastoralism in that these large licks may be key resources, providing micronutrients that are essential for maintaining the health and fecundity of animal as well as human populations in the region.     

Opening a larger window onto forest elephant ecology

African forest elephants (Loxodonta cyclotis) can be observed reliably in forest clearings but are difficult to observe directly in their otherwise forested habitat. To obtain data on population demography and activity cycles, conservation programmes commit considerable human and financial resources to observations at clearings. However, individual elephants spend only a tiny proportion of their annual activity budget in a particular clearing, and there may be demographic differences between daytime and nighttime populations. Using acoustic monitoring tools to assess elephant numbers continuously for long time periods at multiple clearings, we show that daytime‐only observations are likely to be biased. In this study, (i) 79% of all elephant visitation occurred at night, (ii) sometimes large changes in nocturnal elephant numbers occurred without proportional changes in daytime elephant numbers, and (iii) there were indications that a different demographic of the population visits clearings at night compared with the day. These results suggest that acoustic monitoring should be incorporated into forest elephant monitoring programmes to augment direct observation and that more study is needed to explicitly identify any biases inherent in daytime‐only observation.     

Bighorn Sheep Response to Road-Related Disturbances in Rocky Mountain National Park,Colorado

ABSTRACT Bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis) use of Sheep Lakes mineral site, Rocky Mountain National Park, Colorado, USA, has decreased since 1996. Officials were concerned that human disturbance may have been contributing to this decline in use. We evaluated effects of vehicular traffic and other road-related disturbance on bighorn use of Sheep Lakes in the summers of 2002 and 2003. We found that the time and number of attempts required by bighorn to reach Sheep Lakes was positively related to the number of vehicles and people present at Sheep Lakes. Further, the number of bighorn individuals and groups attempting to visit Sheep Lakes were negatively affected by disturbance associated with the site. The number of vehicles recorded the hour before bighorn tried to access Sheep Lakes best predicted an animal's failure to cross Fall River Road and reach Sheep Lakes. We conclude that human and road-related disturbance at Sheep Lakes negatively affected bighorn use of the mineral site. Because Sheep Lakes may be important for bighorn sheep, especially for lamb production and survival, the negative influence of disturbance may compromise health and productivity of the Mummy Range bighorn sheep.