Darwin was a teleologist

It is often claimed that one of Darwin's chief accomplishments was to provide biology with a non-teleological explanation of adaptation. A number of Darwin's closest associates, however, and Darwin himself, did not see it that way. In order to assess whether Darwin's version of evolutionary theory does or does not employ teleological explanation, two of his botanical studies are examined. The result of this examination is that Darwin sees selection explanations of adaptations as teleological explanations. The confusion in the nineteenth century about Darwin's attitude to teleology is argued to be a result of Darwin's teleological explanations not conforming to either of the dominant philosophical justifications of teleology at that time. Darwin's explanatory practices conform well, however, to recent defenses of the teleological character of selection explanations.I would like to thank John Beatty, David Hull and one of this journal's readers for constructive comments on an earlier draft of this paper.     

Effect of temperature on locomotor activity in the goldfish (Carassius auratus) and the bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus): Presence of an ‘activity well’ in the region of the final preferendum

Goldfish (Carassius auratus) and bluegill sunfish (Lepomis macrochirus) were placed in aquaria where their locomotor activity was monitored by photocells, and tested at various acclimation temperatures over a range encompassing their final thermal preferenda. Activity was pooled over 24-hour periods to eliminate any circadian rhythm effects. Both species exhibited an activity well of reduced locomotor activity in the region of the final preferendum. Goldfish, tested either singly or in groups of 2–5 individuals, exhibited a social-interaction effect which became more pronounced at higher temperatures. These results are discussed in relation to a thermokinetic interpretation of thermo-regulatory behavior in fishes, and to the correspondence between thermal preferenda and thermal optima.     

Using Input-Output Analysis to Measure the Environmental Pressure of Consumption at Different Spatial Levels

Input-output modeling is a useful tool for tracing environmental impacts of consumption. Because it includes impacts originating from production layers of infinite order (capturing the entire economy), input-output modeling is highly relevant for studies operating in a life-cycle context. In this article we show how the input-output approach can be used to enumerate the problem of sustainable consumption. Based on a literature survey including research done by the authors we present measures of the emissions of carbon dioxide at different spatial levels: nation, city, and household. Further, we take more environmental effects into account and introduce the concept of environmental efficiency by combining input-output modeling and data envelopment analysis. Finally, we discuss the policy relevance of the different measures. The article demonstrates that input-output modeling has a wide range of life-cycle oriented applications when combined with other data sources such as detailed trade statistics, foreign input-output and environmental statistics, and household expenditure data.     

Impact of climatic variation on populations of pine processionary moth Thaumetopoea pityocampa in a core area of its distribution

• 1 There is growing appreciation of climatic effects on insect population dynamics at the margins of distribution limits. Climatic effects might be less important and/or involve different drivers and processes near the centre of distributions.
• 2 We evaluated the effects of interannual variation in temperatures, radiation and precipitation on populations of pine processionary moth Thaumetopoea pityocampa in Central–South Portugal, a low altitude area with a relatively mild Mediterranean climate near the centre of the north–south range of the species.
• 3 We tested for effects of climate on mortality of young larvae, growth rates, final larval mass and fecundity.
• 4 Results indicated high mortality of early instars associated with low minimum and maximum daily temperatures and low precipitation. Low minimum temperatures were further associated with high parasitism by the larval parasitoid Phryxe caudata (Rondani) (Diptera, Tachinidae). Furthermore, larval growth rates were higher with high solar radiation during December and January, which was itself negatively related to precipitation and air temperature. Slow larval growth rates led to lower final mass at pupation in the spring, and smaller egg masses and smaller initial colony sizes during the next autumn.
• 5 Thus climatic factors, and temperature in particular, apparently contributed to population dynamics of T. pityocampa in the core of its distribution, as well as at its northern limits. The most specific climatic parameters of importance, however, and the connections between climate, physiology and insect demographics in the core area were clearly different from northern areas.

     

太湖水污染防治计划实施效率评估

数据包络分析方法是评价非赢利组织绩效的有效方法之一。研究采用数据包络分析,从绩效审计的观点探讨沿太湖6市环境保护局（以下简称环保局）2001～2005年执行太湖水污染防治“十五”规划的相对效率。结果表明：从技术效率来看,40％的决策单位为相对有效率;对于规模效率,有36．7％的决策单元为相对有效率,各环保局的效率不能令人满意。外部影响因素分析结果表明,人口和经济发展水平对环保局的总技术效率不具有明显影响,而企业数与环保局的整体技术效率具有显著差异性。在此基础上提出了促进环保局效率的对策建议。     

基于物质流分析和数据包络分析的区域生态效率评价——以江苏省为例

区域生态效率(eco-efficiency)评价是考量区域可持发展的重要内容.基于物质流分析(material flow analysis, MFA)构建区域生态效率评价指标体系,并将污染物排放作为一种非期望输入引入到数据包络分析(data envelopment analysis, DEA)模型中,以江苏省(1990～2005年)为例进行生态效率分析评价.结果表明,江苏省的区域生态效率在1990～2005年期间呈现逐步上升的趋势.但是,同期的总物质投入(total material input, TMI)、物质需求总量(total material requirement, TMR)和污染物排放量也呈上升趋势.因此,江苏省社会经济发展和环境影响总体上呈现"弱脱钩(weak de-link)".     

A cost–benefit analysis of the environmental taxation policy in China: A frontier analysis‐based environmentally extended input–output optimization method

China's high‐speed economic development and reliance on overconsumption of natural resources have led to serious environmental pollution. Environmental taxation is seen as an effective economic tool to help mitigate air pollution. In order to assess the effects of different scenarios of environmental taxation policies, we propose a frontier‐based environmentally extended input–output optimization model with explicit emission abatement sectors to reflect the inputs and benefits of abatement. Frontier analysis ensures policy scenarios are assessed under the same technical efficiency benchmark, while input–output analysis depicts the wide range of economic transactions among sectors of an economy. Four scenarios are considered in this study, which are increasing specific tax rates of SO₂, NO_x, and soot and dust separately and increasing all three tax rates simultaneously. Our estimation results show that: raising tax rates of SO₂, NO_x, and soot and dust simultaneously would have the highest emission reduction effects, with the SO₂ tax rate making the greatest contribution to emission reduction. Raising the soot and dust tax rate is the most environmentally friendly strategy due to its highest abatement to welfare through avoided health costs. The combination of frontier analysis and input–output analysis provides policy makers a comprehensive and sectoral approach to assess costs and benefits of environmental taxation.     

Bio-agro-economic returns from carrot and salad rocket as intercrops using hairy woodrose as green manure in a semi-arid region of Brazil

The efficiency of an intercropping system depends mainly on the cropping system and on the crops, which should complement each other. However, the choice of crops and factors of production are extremely important for maximizing the advantages of intercropping, which, in turn, means maximizing the bio-agro-economic performance of the system. The present study sought to assess, based on appropriate indexes and indicators and using univariate and bivariate analysis, the agronomic/biological and economic returns from a system in which salad rocket was intercropped with carrot at different population densities and one of spontaneous species of the semi-arid region of Brazil, namely hairy woodrose (Merremia aegyptia L.), was used as green manure. The population densities of both the crops were maintained at 40%, 60%, 80%, or 100% of the recommended population for a sole crop (RPSC). The following values were recorded or calculated: green biomass of rocket, biomass of carrot roots, aggressivity indexes, competitive ratio, land equivalent ratio, productive efficiency index, canonical variable score, and four economic indicators, namely gross and net returns, rate of return, and net profit margin. The most effective combination was carrot at 40% of its RPSC intercropped with rocket at 100% of its RPSC with hairy woodrose as green manure because the combination resulted in the highest values of land equivalent ratio (1.72), productive efficiency index (0.91), canonical variable score (1.68), gross returns (R$ 41,186.91 ha⁻¹), net returns (R$ 18,621.64 ha⁻¹), rate of return (1.84), and net profit margin (52.77%), making it a highly profitable combination for the north-eastern semi-arid region of Brazil. The most effective indicators of economic value were yield and the rate of return.     

Inner structural organization of the mandibular corpus in the late Early Pleistocene human specimens Tighenif 1 and Tighenif 2

The present study investigates the inner structural organization of the two mandible specimens Tighenif 1 and Tighenif 2 from the late early Pleistocene site of Tighenif, Algeria. Using (micro)tomographic scans, we built a new protocol to investigate the cortical bone topography at the post-canine level. We selected two cross-sectional slices placed between the P3/P4 and M1/M2 on the right and left sides and assessed the cortical bone thickness topography (CBT) on each slice. Our analyses demonstrate that the mandibles from Tighenif exhibit higher CBT and a different topographic distribution pattern at the molar level than in modern humans, resulting in a proportionally more robust inner structure, while a similar signal is observed between the fossil and extant specimens at the premolar level. Further studies need to be done in order to determine if this feature is related to functional constraints during mastication or paramasticatory activities; or if it is related to any independent evolutionary process.