Restoration of managed pine fens: effect on hydrology and vegetation

Question: How does restoration affect the hydrology and the understorey vegetation of managed pine fens? Location: Oligotrophic pine fens in Natura 2000 areas in Kainuu, eastern Finland. Methods: Eleven managed pine fens and eight pristine reference pine fens were chosen for the study in 2005. The managed fens, which had been drained for forestry during the 1970s and 1980s, were restored in 2007. The water table was monitored in all fens over four growing seasons during 2006 to 2009, and vegetation was surveyed from permanent sample plots in 2006 and 2009. Results: Before restoration in 2006, the water table was at a significantly lower level in the managed fens compared with the pristine fens. Immediately after restoration, the water table rose to the same level as in the pristine fens, and this change was permanent. Forest drainage had had little impact on the understorey vegetation of the managed fens in the three decades before restoration, with species typical of pristine fens still dominating the sites. Forest dwarf shrubs and feather mosses had started to increase in cover, but mire dwarf shrubs and Sphagnum mosses still dominated the managed fens. Only the typical hollow species Sphagnum majus, Sphagnum balticum and Scheuzeria palustris were missing from the managed fens. Two years after restoration, the changes in species composition were also marginal, with increased cover of mire dwarf shrubs and sedges being the only significant change. Conclusions: The success of restoration of oligotrophic pine fens seems likely, given that changes in hydrological functioning occurred rapidly, and since little change has occurred in the vegetation composition after draining. Speeding up the regeneration process in these peatland types by restoration may, therefore, be recommended, especially if the drainage effect extends to nearby pristine mires and influences their biodiversity.     

Effects of restoration measures on plant communities of wet heathland ecosystems

Question: Which are the success and failure of restoration measures, particularly sod‐cutting and hydrological measures, in small wetlands on mineral soils in The Netherlands. Location: Twente, in the eastern part of The Netherlands. Methods: Success or failure of restoration measures has been assessed by comparing experimental plots with that in reference plots for (1) species richness, (2) re‐establishment of endangered species and (3) species composition, including life forms and Red List species. In total 119 samples were taken in 42 permanent plots in fen meadows, small‐sedge marshes, wet heathlands, and soft‐water pools. Topsoil samples were analysed for pH, Ca, Mg, Na, K and Cation Exchange Capacity. Gradient analysis was carried out by means of Canonical Correspondence Analysis. Results: Sod‐cutting, in combination with re‐wetting measures (infilling of ditches and drains), led to restoration of communities of soft‐water pools and small sedge marshes within five years. This rapid recovery is probably related to the presence of persistent seed banks of the component species of these communities. Complete restoration of fen meadows took longer (10–15 yr). Apparently, many species of fen meadows have short‐lived seed banks. Sod‐cutting of a degraded wet heathland and a soft‐water pool was only successful temporarily, probably as a consequence of low water tables. Conclusions: To prevent depletion of (persistent) soil seed banks, sod‐cutting in nutrient‐poor wetlands is not recommended in areas where the groundwater regime and the base status of the soil can not be restored to levels required by plant communities of wet heathlands.     

Nutrient limitations in an extant and drained poor fen: implications for restoration

In a species-rich poor fen (Caricetum nigrae) and a species-poor drained fen, the difference in nutrient limitation of the vegetation was assessed in a full-factorial fertilization experiment with N, P and K. The results were compared to the nutrient ratios of plant material and to chemical analysis of the topsoil. A rewetting experiment with intact sods was carried out in the glasshouse and the results are discussed in view of restoration prospects of drained and degraded peatlands. In the undrained poor fen the above-ground biomass yield was N-limited while the vegetation of the drained fen was K-limited. Experimental rewetting of intact turf samples, taken in the drained site, did not change the biomass yield or the type of nutrient limitation. It was concluded that mire systems which have been subjected to prolonged drainage are inclined to pronounced K-deficiency, probably due to washing out of potassium and harvesting the standing crop. This may hamper restoration projects in degraded peat areas where nature conservation tries to restore species-rich vegetation types with a high nature value.     

Tracking changes in the land use,management and drainage status of organic soils as indicators of the effectiveness of mitigation strategies for climate change

The tracking of land use since 1990 presents a major challenge in greenhouse gas (GHG) reporting under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the Kyoto Protocol because there is often limited availability of data, especially for the base year of 1990. There is even less land management and soil moisture data, which are needed to track climate change mitigation activities since soil moisture is one of the main drivers of GHG emissions of organic soils. Information is also needed for the reporting of land-based activities such as grazing land management or wetland drainage and rewetting of organic soils. Different spatial and thematic resolutions of land-use data produce inconsistent time series with a strong overestimation of land-use change (LUC) if not adequately accounted for. Our aim was to create a consistent time series of land use since 1990 that is in line with GHG reporting under the UNFCCC and the Kyoto Protocol by combining official cadastral data with colour-infrared aerial photography used for biodiversity monitoring in six federal states in northern and eastern Germany. We developed a generic hierarchical classification by land use, management and drainage status, and a translation key for data harmonisation into a consistent time series. This time series enabled the quantification of LUC on organic soils between 1992 and 2013 in a spatially explicit manner. Furthermore we used this time series to develop indicators for changes in land management and drainage to evaluate the success of protection statuses on peatland restoration.The study area encompassed one million hectares, half of which had some type of legal nature protection status. Areas with no protection status tended to become more intensively farmed and drier, while highly protected areas (e.g. Natura 2000) showed the opposite trend. Land-use trends also differed greatly between federal states. In Schleswig-Holstein organic soils tended to become drier during the study period, while in Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania they tended to become wetter overall. The trends and differences in LUC between federal states were linked to German reunification, changes in the European Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) and Germany's Renewable Energy Act (EEG). A large-scale peatland protection programme also had major impact.In conclusion, our study demonstrates how data derived for biodiversity monitoring and other highly detailed land-use data can be used to track changes in land use, management and drainage status in accordance with the reporting requirements under the UNFCCC and the Kyoto Protocol.     

Plant responses to rising water tables and nutrient management in calcareous dune slacks

Plant species of oligotrophic wet dune slacks have dramatically decreased as a result of desiccation and eutrophication. The aim of this study was to test in a field experiment the effects of restoration management in oligotrophic, wet dune slacks (groundwater level rise in combination with topsoil removal or mowing) on abiotic variables and on survival and biomass of four plant species. The effect of groundwater level rise on abiotic variables strongly differed between mown sampling locations and those with topsoil removal. At locations with a mowing treatment, a large rise in water tables led to increased N availability and higher reduced iron concentrations than at other locations. Such effects were absent at locations with recent topsoil removal. No effect of groundwater level rise on P-availability was found. Topsoil removal on average lowered N availability by 13%, P availability by 65% and Fe²⁺ by 56%. All phytometer species survived better in mown dune slacks than in dune slacks that had received topsoil removal. Survival of all species was negatively related to groundwater level rise. On the short term local extinction risks of small populations may be enhanced by rewetting and topsoil removal. On the long-term, however, such measures are crucial to maintain vegetation of oligotrophic wet dune slacks in a degraded dune landscape.     

The mobilisation of phosphorus,organic carbon and ammonium in the initial stage of fen rewetting (a case study from NE Germany)

Currently, more than 10,000 ha of fens have been rewetted to re-establish their function as nutrient sinks in NE Germany. However, field investigations reveal that porewater concentrations of P, dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and ammonium in rewetted fens are orders of magnitude larger than under pristine conditions. Hence, the objective of this study was to investigate the reasons behind enhanced P, organic carbon (OC) and ammonium mobilisation due to rewetting by means of a long-term incubation experiment. Highly, moderately and slightly decomposed peat of a drained fen (polder Zarnekow) was incubated under waterlogged conditions. A time course of concentrations of P, DOC, ammonium, sulphate and other dissolved substances was investigated by means of permanently installed dialysis samplers during 54 weeks of incubation. Simultaneously, the concentrations of these dissolved substances were investigated after rewetting of the field site. Before, and at the end of the incubation study, the amounts of bicarbonate–dithionite (BD) and NaOH soluble P and OC of incubated peat samples were determined by a sequential extraction procedure. The highest mobilisation of P, OC and ammonium occurred in the highly decomposed peat. Final concentrations of P, DOC and ammonium reached about 143 μM, 46 and 1.9 mM, respectively. The initial sulphate concentrations in the rewetting experiment, as well as in the field investigations, were extremely high and ranged between 3 and 13 mM; however, a complete consumption of sulphate was only observed in highly decomposed peat. In conclusion, the reasons for enhanced P, OC and ammonium mobilisation are increased amounts of redox sensitive substances and enhanced availability of decomposable organic matter in the upper highly decomposed peat horizon. These results should be considered in future rewetting management strategies.     

Long‐term effects of drainage and initial effects of hydrological restoration on rich fen vegetation

Questions: What vegetational changes does a boreal rich fen (alkaline fen) undergo during a time period of 24 years after drainage? How is plant species richness affected, and what are the changes in composition of ecological groups of species? Is it possible to recover parts of the original flora by rewetting the rich fen? Which are the initial vegetation changes in the flora after rewetting? What are the major challenges for restoration of rich fen flora after rewetting? Location: Eastern central Sweden, southern boreal vegetational zone. Previously rich fen site, drained for forestry purposes during 1978–1979. The site was hydrologically restored (rewetted) in 2002. Method: Annual vegetation survey in permanent plots during a period of 28 years. Results: There were three successional stages in the vegetational changes. In the first stage there was a rapid (< 5 years) loss of rich fen bryophytes. The second step was an increase of sedges and early successional bryophytes, which was followed by an increase of a few emerging dominants, such as Molinia caerulea, Betula pubescens and Sphagnum spp. After rewetting, there are indications of vegetation recovery, albeit at slow rates. Depending on, for instance, initial species composition different routes of vegetation change were observed in the flora after drainage, although after 24 years, species composition became more homogenous and dominated by a few species with high cover. Conclusion: Major changes have occurred after changes in the hydrology (drainage and rewetting) with a severe impact on the biodiversity among vascular plants and bryophytes. Several rich fen bryophytes respond quickly to the changes in water level (in contrast to vascular plants). The recovery after rewetting towards the original rich fen vegetation is slow, as delayed by substrate degradation, dispersal limitation and presence of dominant species.     

Calibration and validation of an empirical approach to model soil CO<Subscript>2</Subscript> efflux in a deciduous forest

Soil respiration (Rs) was monitored periodically throughout 2001 and 2003 in a pedunculate oak (Quercus robur L.) stand located in the Belgian Campine region. An empirical model originally developed for a neighboring pine stand, that accounts for variation in temperature, soil moisture, rewetting of the surface layers by rain during dry periods and seasonal fresh litter inputs, was fitted to the data. The model explained 92% and 94% of the temporal variability in Rs during 2001 and 2003 respectively. Monthly measurements of Rs can suffice to build a robust empirical model if temperature is the main controlling factor. However, during the driest period of the year a weekly sampling schedule was needed to capture the combined effect of temperature, soil water content (SWC) and the short-term effect of rewetting played. Although the model was developed for gap-filling purposes it also showed a remarkable predictive ability for this site and these conditions. Annual emissions of carbon (C) estimated with the model were significantly higher in 2001 than in 2003 (7.8 and 5.9 ton C ha⁻¹ year⁻¹, respectively). The severe drought during most of the growing season in 2003 caused a high fine root mortality and a decrease in microbial activity, and was likely the main responsible factor of the almost 2 ton C ha⁻¹ year⁻¹ differences in Rs between both years. Pulses of Rs during drying/rewetting cycles accounted for a substantial fraction of the total flux, especially during the driest year. Finally, our results show that quality of the substrate may play an important role in both the intensity of the rewetting pulses of CO₂ and the seasonality of Rs.     

土壤水分与温度共同作用对植物根系水分传导的效应

 本文根据不同大气环境温度和土壤温度及不同土壤含水率处理条件下的玉米、向日葵、台湾相思(Acacia confusa)、银合欢(Leucaena glauca)的试验资料，分析了土壤水分和温度以及土壤水分与温度共同作用对植物根系水分传导的效应。台湾相思和银合欢的试验结果表明，在一定的土壤水分范围内，高温(白天/夜晚的温度为40／30℃)环境中的根系水分传导大于低温(30/25℃)环境中的，但当根系水分胁迫十分严重(台湾相思根系水势小于-1.5MPa，银合欢根系水势小于-2.0MPa)时，30/25℃环境的根系水分传导反而大于40／30℃环境的；玉米、向日葵的试验结果表明，在一定土壤温度范围内，根系水分传导随土壤温度增加而增加，其增加的幅度与生育阶段有关；在向日葵生育期土壤温度高于35℃、玉米生育期高于30℃时，其根系水分传导随温度增加而降低。通过植物根区土壤逐渐干旱和干旱复水后的试验，其结果表明复水后根系水分传导上升较快，银合欢复水1.5d、向日葵复水3d后测得的根系水分传导即可达到受旱前的水平，其后的水分传导还略高于一直充分供水处理的，表明根系经受一定程度的干旱锻炼后，对其水分传导具有明显的补偿效应。在干旱和复水过程中根系水分传导与根水势的变化规律相一致。     

Plant traits in response to raising groundwater levels in wetland restoration: evidence from three case studies

Question: Is raising groundwater tables successful as a wetland restoration strategy? Location: Kennemer dunes, The Netherlands; Moksloot dunes, The Netherlands and Bullock Creek fen, New Zealand. Methods: Generalizations were made by analysing soil dynamics and the responsiveness of integrative plant traits on moisture, nutrient regime and seed dispersal in three case studies of re wetted vs. control wetlands with the same actual groundwater levels. Soil conditions included mineral (calcareous and non‐calcareous) soils with no initial vegetation, mineral soils with established vegetation and organic soils with vegetation. Results: The responsiveness of traits to raised groundwater tables was related to soil type and vegetation presence and depended on actual groundwater levels. In the moist‐wet zone, oligotrophic species, ‘drier’ species with higher seed longevity occupied gaps created by vegetation dieback on rewetting. The other rewetted zones still reflected trait values of the vegetation prevalent prior to rewetting with fewer adaptations to wet conditions, increased nutrient richness and higher seed longevity. Moreover, ‘eutrophic’ and ‘drier’ species increased at rewetted sites, so that these restored sites became dissimilar to control wetlands. Conclusions: The prevalent traits of the restored wetlands do not coincide with traits belonging to generally targeted plant species of wetland restoration. Long‐term observations in restored and control wetlands with different groundwater regimes are needed to determine whether target plant species eventually re vegetate restored wetlands.