Predator-mediated habitat use: some consequences for species interactions

Synopsis Behavioral responses to predators can have a major impact on a fishes' diet and habitat choice. Studies with the bluegill sunfish, Lepomis macrochirus, demonstrate that bluegills undergo pronounced shifts in diet and habitat use as they grow in response to changes in their vulnerability to predators. Other species of fish exhibit similar habitat shifts with body size, presumably also in response to changing predation risks and/or foraging gains. An important but little appreciated consequence of this type of predator-mediated habitat use is that predation risk, by structuring size and/or age-specific resource use, may also indirectly affect species interactions. This paper discusses some of the ways in which behavioral responses to predators may affect intra- and interspecific competition in fish. Observational and experimental studies with sunfish (Centrarchidae) provide most of the examples. These studies suggest that the nonlethal effects of predators may be as important as the actual killing of prey.     

An observation of an association between adaptive pigmentation and thermal tolerance of fish

Replidated experiments indicate an association between thermal tolerance of juvenile bluegill sunfish and adaptive pigmentation to background color. Bluegills exposed to black backgrounds were able to survive higher temperatures longer than those exposed to blond backgrounds, when water temperatures were raised at a rate of 0.1°C/h from 24 to 36°C. Plausible explanations are considered which involve heat radiation effectiveness (by the fish) related to the black body concept, and stress associated with adaptive pigmentation.     

Thermoregulatory behavior of the bluespotted sunfish,Enneacanthus Gloriousus

Twenty bluespotted sunfish, Enneacanthus gloriosus, were individually tested for thermoregulatory behavior in an electronic shuttlebox. The first fishes of this genus to be tested for thermoregulatory behavior, these individuals were captured near the northern limit of their zoogeographic range, in northeastern Pennsylvania. The mean final preferendum from pooled data of all 20 fish was 28.5°C; there were no significant differences between day and night.     

Social familiarity and shoal formation in juvenile fishes

The potential influence of social familiarity in shoal‐choice decisions was investigated in two sympatric species of north temperate fishes, juvenile banded killifish Fundulus diaphanus and juvenile bluegill sunfish Lepomis macrochirus. Groups of socially familiar and unfamiliar conspecifics were formed in the laboratory using wild‐caught fishes. Juvenile F. diaphanus demonstrated a strong preference for familiar conspecific shoalmates, whereas juvenile L. macrochirus exhibited no preference for either unfamiliar or familiar conspecific shoalmates. The differential influence of familiarity on shoalmate choice in juveniles of these two species could be due to their different ecologies, local population densities and life histories.     

Hunting behavior of Florida largemouth bass, Micropterus salmoides floridanus, in a channelized river

The distribution and behavior of Florida largemouth bass, Micropterus salmoides floridanus, and their main prey (sunfish, genus Lepomis, and the cichlid Tilapia mariae) were studied in southern Florida to determine how fish behave in the simplified habitats found in channelized rivers. Time budgets were constructed from focal animal observations on 69 bass. Patterns of behavior associated with hunting were performed during a significantly higher proportion of the time when bass were in vegetated habitats. Scan samples of the behavior of 236 observed bass revealed that hunting was more common in areas of high structural complexity. Only 38% of observed bass were solitary, with the majority occurring in groups with either conspecifics or in mixed-species groups with similar sized bluegill sunfish, Lepomis macrochirus. Largemouth bass (n=1014) and sunfish (n=1372) were significantly more abundant in areas with vegetation and were almost entirely absent from the water column in the center of the canal. All species of fish avoided the water column, where currents were swift and no cover was available. The structure of the habitat appears to be important in the way largemouth bass organize their activity patterns. This suggests that habitat availability in channelized rivers significantly influences important behaviors such as hunting, thus potentially altering energy budgets and population dynamics of both predator and prey.     

大别山区黑沟绿太阳鱼种群的形态特征研究

绿太阳鱼是2015年4月在大别山区淠河流域支流中新发现的入侵鱼类。利用2015年7月从黑沟中采集的78尾绿太阳鱼标本,对该物种的形态特征进行了详细测量和分析。结果发现绿太阳鱼种群内的形态相似性较高,但还存在一定的形态差异。相比性别,年龄是造成这种形态差异的主要原因。雄性从Ⅰ龄开始出现显著的形态分化,而雌性差异并不显著。这种形态学的差异完全符合雄鱼筑巢护卵的习性,具体表现在雄鱼头部指标（D1-2、D2-3、眼间距、眼后头长、头长）、臀鳍附近指标（D5-7、D5-8）、背鳍基部指标（D6-8）和尾柄处指标（D9-10）增大。同时相比Ⅰ龄以上的雄鱼,雌鱼和0龄雄鱼的尾柄指标（D8-10、D8-9）较长,身体更适于流水环境。这种雌雄体型上的变化,将有助于雄鱼占领溪流环境中的静水区（深潭）,而雌鱼和0龄鱼占领流水区（急滩、湍流）,这为该种群适应山区溪流的水文环境,合理分配生态位提供了便利条件,同时也使其对大别山区其他鱼类具有较大的生态危害潜力。     

Retinal topography of ganglion cells in immature ocean sunfish, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Mola mola</Emphasis>

The ocean sunfish, Mola mola, is the largest known bony fish. Based on prior studies of diet composition, it is considered to be a pelagic zooplanktivore. However, a recent study using acoustic telemetry revealed that they repeatedly dive to depths of >50 m during the day. We examined the distribution of cells within the retinal ganglion cell layer in the immature ocean sunfish (c.a. 50 cm total length) and estimated their visual acuity with respect to the main visual axis and visual fields. Visual acuity was between 3.37 and 4.41 cycles/degree. The region of highest cell density was located in the dorso-temporal retina, indicating that the main visual axis of ocean sunfish is directed towards the lower frontal portion of the visual field. This axis is considered beneficial for detecting prey items when the sunfish are migrating vertically through the water column, and in foraging behavior near the sea bottom.     

Predator-induced delayed maturity in bluegill sunfish (Lepomis macrochirus): variation among populations

Previous studies suggested that differences in age at maturity among populations of bluegill sunfish (Lepomis macrochirus) were not genetically based, but rather were a phenotypic response to the presence of predators. I conducted two experiments to determine if the presence of largemouth bass affected age at maturity in bluegill sunfish. Bluegills from three populations were tested to see if the response to the threat of predation varied among source populations. Juvenile bluegills were maintained in the presence of predators or in controls with no contact with predators. Refuge use and growth were monitored during the experiments and reproductive activity was evaluated when bluegills reached age 1. Bluegills from one population exhibited delayed maturity in the presence of predators. Individuals from the other two populations showed no significant differences between predator and control treatments. The population that responded to the presence of predators had a history of high predation levels over the past 30–40 years. The other populations had a history of low levels of predation. This study suggests that presence of predators can induce phenotypic shifts in age at maturity of bluegills, but that the magnitude of response varies among populations in a manner consistent with historical patterns of coexistence. Received: 7 August 1996 / Accepted: 8 August 1997     

Optimal foraging as the criteria of prey selection by two centrarchid fishes

The nature of prey selection by two centrarchids (white crappie and bluegill) is presented as a model incorporating optimal foraging strategies. The visual field of the foraging fish as represented by the reactive distance is analysed in detail to estimate the number of prey encounters per search bout. The predicted reactive distances are compared with experimental data. The energetic cost associated with fish foraging behaviour is calculated based on the sequence of events that takes place for each prey consumed. Comparisons of the relative abundance of prey species and size categories in the stomach to the lake environment indicated that both white crappie and bluegill (length < 100 mm) strongly select prey utilising an energy optimization strategy. In most cases, the fish exclusively selected large Daphnia ignoring evasive prey types (Cyclops, Diaptomids) and small cladocera. This selectivity is the result of fish actively avoiding prey with high evasion capabilities even though they appear to be high in energetic content and having translated this into optimal selectivity through capture success rates. The energy consideration and visual system, apart from the forager's ability to capture prey, are the major determinants of prey selectivity for large-sized bluegill and white crappie still at planktivorous stages.