Immunosuppression by Mutated Calreticulin Released from Malignant Cells

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PD-1/PD-L1 pathway: Basic biology and role in cancer immunotherapy

Over the course of past few years, cancer immunotherapy has been accompanied with promising results. However, preliminary investigations with respect to immunotherapy concentrated mostly on targeting the immune checkpoints, nowadays, emerge as the most efficient strategy to raise beneficial antitumor immune responses. Programmed cell death protein 1 (PD-1) plays an important role in subsiding immune responses and promoting self-tolerance through suppressing the activity of T cells and promoting differentiation of regulatory T cells. PD-1 is considered as an immune checkpoint and protects against autoimmune responses through both induction of apoptosis in antigen-specific T cells and inhibiting apoptosis in regulatory T cells. Several clinical trials exerting PD-1 monoclonal antibodies as well as other immune-checkpoint blockades have had prosperous outcomes and opened new horizons in tumor immunotherapy. Nonetheless, a bulk of patients have failed to respond to these newly emerging immune-based approach and the survival rate was not satisfying. Additional strategies, especially combination therapies, has been initiated and been further promising. Attempts to identify novel and well-suited predictive biomarkers are also sensed. In this review, the promotion of cancer immunotherapy targeting PD-1 immunoinhibitory pathway is discussed.     

A novel dominant-negative PD-1 armored anti-CD19 CAR T cell is safe and effective against refractory/relapsed B cell lymphoma

Refractory/relapsed B cell lymphoma patients who received the available anti-CD19 chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cells may still experience a short duration of remission. Here in this study, we evaluated the safety and efficacy of a novel dominant-negative programmed cell death-1 (PD-1) armored anti-CD19 CAR T cells. A total of 9 patients (including 4 diffuse large B cell lymphomas, DLBCL, 2 transformed follicular lymphomas, TFL, and 3 follicular lymphomas, FL) received the novel CAR T cells infusion at a dose of more than 1 × 10⁶/kg. Grade ≥ 3 cytokine release syndrome (CRS) and neurotoxicity were observed in 11.1% (n = 1/9) and 11.1% (n = 1/9) of patients, respectively. The overall response rate (ORR) was 77.8% (n = 7/9) and complete response (CR) rate was 55.6% (n = 5/9). Two patients have ongoing CR (all at 20+ months). CAR T cells expanded after infusion and continued to be detectable at 12+ months in patients with ongoing CR. This novel CD19-CAR T cell was safe and effective with durable remissions in patients with refractory/relapsed B cell lymphoma.     

Establishment of peripheral blood mononuclear cell-derived humanized lung cancer mouse models for studying efficacy of PD-L1/PD-1 targeted immunotherapy

ABSTRACT

Animal models used to evaluate efficacies of immune checkpoint inhibitors are insufficient or inaccurate. We thus examined two xenograft models used for this purpose, with the aim of optimizing them. One method involves the use of peripheral blood mononuclear cells and cell line-derived xenografts (PBMCs-CDX model). For this model, we implanted human lung cancer cells into NOD-scid-IL2Rg?/? (NSI) mice, followed by injection of human PBMCs. The second method involves the use of hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells and CDX (HSPCs-CDX model). For this model, we first reconstituted the human immune system by transferring human CD34+ hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells (HSPCs-derived humanized model) and then transplanted human lung cancer cells. We found that the PBMCs-CDX model was more accurate in evaluating PD-L1/PD-1 targeted immunotherapies. In addition, it took only four weeks with the PBMCs-CDX model for efficacy evaluation, compared to 10–14 weeks with the HSPCs-CDX model. We then further established PBMCs-derived patient-derived xenografts (PDX) models, including an auto-PBMCs-PDX model using cancer and T cells from the same tumor, and applied them to assess the antitumor efficacies of anti-PD-L1 antibodies. We demonstrated that this PBMCs-derived PDX model was an invaluable tool to study the efficacies of PD-L1/PD-1 targeted cancer immunotherapies. Overall, we found our PBMCs-derived models to be excellent preclinical models for studying immune checkpoint inhibitors.     

Palbociclib,a selective CDK4/6 inhibitor,restricts cell survival and epithelial-mesenchymal transition in Panc-1 and MiaPaCa-2 pancreatic cancer cells

The mortality rate of pancreatic cancer has close parallels to its incidence rate because of limited therapeutics and lack of effective prognosis. Despite various novel chemotherapeutics combinations, the 5-year survival rate is still under 5%. In the current study, we aimed to modulate the aberrantly activated PI3K/AKT pathway and epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) signaling with the treatment of CDK4/6 inhibitor PD-0332991 (palbociclib) in Panc-1 and MiaPaCa-2 pancreatic cancer cells. It was found that PD-0332991 effectively reduced cell viability and proliferation dose-dependently within 24 hours. In addition, PD-0332991 induced cell cycle arrest at the G1 phase by downregulation of aberrant expression of CDK4/6 through the dephosphorylation of Rb in each cell lines. Although PD-0332991 treatment increased epithelial markers and decreased mesenchymal markers, the nuclear translocation of β-catenin was not prevented by PD-0332991 treatment, especially in MiaPaCa-2 cells. Effects of PD-0332991 on the regulation of PI3K/AKT signaling and its downstream targets such as GSK-3 were cell type-dependent. Although the activity of AKT was inhibited in both cell lines, the phosphorylation of GSK-3β at Ser9 increased only in Panc-1. In conclusion, PD-0332991 induced cell cycle arrest and reduced the cell viability of Panc-1 and MiaPaCa-2 cells. However, PD-0332991 differentially affects the regulation of the PI3K/AKT pathway and EMT process in cells due to its distinct influence on Rb and GSK-3/β-catenin signaling. Understanding the effect of PD-0332991 on the aberrantly activated signaling axis may put forward a new therapeutic strategy to reduce the cell viability and metastatic process of pancreatic cancer.     

PD-L1基因敲除小鼠构建及初步表型验证

目的 程序性死亡配体-1(PD-L1)是免疫调节途径的重要因子,是抗肿瘤免疫疗法中重要的靶标之一。利用CRISPR/Cas9技术成功构建PD-L1基因敲除小鼠模型,并初步分析其表型。方法 构建Cas9和sgRNA载体,并转录获得RNA,通过显微注射方式将RNA注射到C57BL/6小鼠受精卵中,经过鉴定获得F₀代阳性小鼠。F₀代小鼠与野生型C57BL/6小鼠交配获得F₁代杂合子小鼠,再通过F₁代小鼠自交获得F₂代纯合子小鼠品系。随后通过Real-Time PCR和流式实验分别检测PD-L1基因在mRNA和蛋白质水平上的表达情况。结果 Real-Time PCR和流式实验检测结果显示与野生型C57小鼠相比,PD-L1纯合子小鼠的PD-L1 mRNA相对表达水平和细胞上的蛋白质表达均有显著性下降,仅测定到本底的信号,证实已成功构建PD-L1基因敲除小鼠品系,为PD-L1体内基因功能研究提供了新的小鼠模型。     

Correlation between PD-1/PD-L1 expression and polarization in tumor-associated macrophages: A key player in tumor immunotherapy

Tumor immunotherapy, such as PD-1/PD-L1 blockade, has shown promising clinical efficacy in patients with various types of tumors. However, the response to PD-1/PD-L1 blockade in a majority of malignancies is limited, indicating an urgent need for a deeper understanding of the mechanisms of PD-1/PD-L1 axis-mediated tumor tolerance. As the most abundant immune cells in the tumor stroma, macrophages display multiple phenotypes and functions in response to the stimuli of the tumor microenvironment. PD-1/PD-L1 has been demonstrated to be highly expressed in tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs), and TAM polarization has been shown to be important during tumor progression. In this review, we outline the relationship between TAM PD-1/PD-L1 expression and polarizations, summarize the involvement of M2 TAMs in PD-1/PD-L1-mediated T-cell exhaustion, and discuss improved approaches for overcoming PD-1/PD-L1 blockade resistance by inducing M2/M1 switching of TAMs.