The conservation value of unlogged and logged forests for native mammals on the East Coast of Peninsular Malaysia

Tropical forests across the world provide important habitats for a diverse number of conservation priority species, yet are under threat from a range of anthropogenic impacts including logging. This study aims to quantify mammalian biodiversity in unlogged and logged forests in the adjoining Tembat and Petuang Forest Reserves, Terengganu, on the East Coast of Peninsular Malaysia. Data was collected over a series of surveys using direct and indirect observation methods from 2008 to 2014. A total of 30 medium and large sized mammals species were identified, with 27 of those species found in unlogged forests and 22 species in logged forests. Carnivores encompassed 11 species from 67 observations representing 15% of the total number of observations. The family Felidae had the highest number of species (six species), followed by Hylobatidae, Cercopithecidae and Suidae with three species each. A total of 17 species contributed to more than 90% of the mammal community in the unlogged and logged forests, while six species were uncommon and only observed once during the entire survey. Species abundance in the unlogged forest was significantly greater than the logged forests, but the difference was not significant for species richness. This study provides critical baseline information on the impact of unlogged and logged forests and the identification of threatened species warrant the establishment of conservation measures such as anti-poaching patrol and ranger stations in the study area.     

Population biology of two land snails (Mesomphix spp.): variation among six southern appalachian sites with differing disturbance histories

Summary Ecological and genetic properties of two North American terrestrial gastropods (Mesomphix spp.) were characterized in paired control and previously logged watersheds in two North Carolina forests (Coweeta and the Great Smoky Mountains National Park) of the Southern Appalachian Biosphere Reserve Cluster. Shell growth was greater in the control sites, but density and mortality were largely independent of prior logging history and forest reserve. Based on starch gel electrophoresis data, both species showed their highest levels of genetic diversity in the Coweeta forest, the component of the reserve cluster which had the most extensive and variable history of logging disturbance. M. subplanus also exhibited higher levels of heterozygosity in logged than in control watersheds, and M. andrewsae showed over twice as many rare alleles in disturbed sites as in control sites. F-statistic analysis depicted both excess levels of homozygosity and moderate genetic differentiation among the populations, reflecting the effects of small population size and perhaps drift and inbreeding. Estimated gene flow was relatively low. These results correspond to the recent finding by Bryant et al. (1987) and others on the effects of bottlenecks, and to the contrasting history of habitat instability of the two major study forests.     

Tree diversity change in remaining primary mixed-broadleaved Korean pine forest under climate change and human activities

Studying biodiversity change in existing typical ecosystems of the world under possible global climate change and local human activities is important for diversity conservation. An adapted forest dynamics model is used to simulate tree diversity change of the remaining primary mixed-broadleaved Korean pine forest (RPMKPF) in northeast China under global climate change and local human activities for the next 50 years. Human activities include logging, which removes all big trees (DBH > 50 cm), removing all individuals of each single species and all species of each functional type (shade tolerant, shade intolerant and medium type tree species). As results for RPMKPF, the index of tree diversity decreases under climate change, but it increases significantly under a combination of climate change and logging. Removing all individuals of each single species significantly affects the tree diversity of the ecosystem. After the removal of shade tolerant species, both and _c indices of tree diversity experience a significant change. The index decreases significantly under climate change when shade intolerant or medium type tree species are removed, but the _c index does not change significantly. The results of this study have implications for tree diversity management in RPMKPF under climate change and human activities.     

Woody vegetation structure of xeric forest stands under different edaphic site conditions and disturbance histories in the Biosphere Reserve 'Parque Costero del Sur', Argentina

We studied stand structures and soil properties in an old-growth forest and two 30-yr-old second-growth stands. In the old-growth forest, the total density and basal area average 1566 trees > 1.25 m height ha^-1 and 46.73 m² ha^-1. The dominant trees are Scutia buxifolia and Celtis tala. Using multivariate techniques we distinguished three stands: PS1, dominated by S. buxifolia, is 1000 m far from the river. Its soil is shallow and loamy. PS2 and PS3, co-dominated by S. buxifolia and C. tala, are over 1200 m distant from the river. There the soil is deeper and has thicker texture and higher phosphorus and calcium concentrations than the near-the-river forest soil. Scutia buxifolia shows reverse J-shaped size-distributions and has morphological features of stress-tolerant species. Celtis tala shows oscillating decay size-curves that suggest recruitment pulses related to small gaps and it has morphological features of competitive species. Celtis tala was selectively cut in the past in the second-growth stands SNRD and SRD. The stand SNRD, 1000 m far from the river, is dominated by S. buxifolia. The second species is Schinus polygamus which presents the bell-shaped size-structure of the pioneer species. SNRD does not differ from its old-growth counterpart PS1 in total tree density, basal area and tree branching. The stand SRD, over 1200 m distant from the river, is co-dominated by S. buxifolia and by C. tala trees regenerated from stumps. SRD does not differ from its old-growth counterparts PS2 and PS3 in total tree density and basal area. As to tree branching, it does not differ from PS3, but differs from PS2. All the stands are being invaded by the exotic tree Ligustrum lucidum.The differences between the old-growth stands seem to be related to the gradients of soil texture and nutrient concentrations raising edaphic stress towards the river. In SNRD, the stress, the stress-tolerance of S. buxifolia, and the aptitude of S. polygamus to recruit in disturbed habitats seem to have prevented the post-logging recruitment of C. tala. In SRD, C. tala regenerated possibly due to a better competitive performance in a more favorable site. Under protection the second-growth stands recovered the old-growth quantitative features. We recommend the restoration of the qualitative features and the control of L. lucidum.     

Vegetation classification,mapping, and monitoring at Voyageurs National Park,Minnesota: An application of the U.S. National Vegetation Classification

Question: How can the U.S. National Vegetation Classification (USNVC) serve as an effective tool for classifying and mapping vegetation, and inform assessments and monitoring? Location: Voyageurs National Park, northern Minnesota, U.S.A and environs. The park contains 54 243 ha of terrestrial habitat in the sub-boreal region of North America. Methods: We classified and mapped the natural vegetation using the USNVC, with ‘alliance’and ‘association’as base units. We compiled 259 classification plots and 1251 accuracy assessment test plots. Both plot and type ordinations were used to analyse vegetation and environmental patterns. Color infrared aerial photography (1:15840 scale) was used for mapping. Polygons were manually drawn, then transferred into digital form. Classification and mapping products are stored in publicly available databases. Past fire and logging events were used to assess distribution of forest types. Results and Discussion: Ordination and cluster analyses confirmed 49 associations and 42 alliances, with three associations ranked as globally vulnerable to extirpation. Ordination provided a useful summary of vegetation and ecological gradients. Overall map accuracy was 82.4%. Pinus banksiana - Picea mariana forests were less frequent in areas unburned since the 1930s. Conclusion: The USNVC provides a consistent ecological tool for summarizing and mapping vegetation. The products provide a baseline for assessing forests and wetlands, including fire management. The standardized classification and map units provide local to continental perspectives on park resources through linkages to state, provincial, and national classifications in the U.S. and Canada, and to NatureServe's Ecological Systems classification.     

Dynamics of Tree Diversity in Undisturbed and Logged Subtropical Rainforest in Australia

In subtropical rainforest in eastern Australia, changes in the diversity of trees were compared under natural conditions and eight silvicultural regimes over 35 years. In the treated plots basal area remaining after logging ranged from 12 to 58 m^{2}/ha. In three control plots richness differed little over this period. In the eight treated plots richness per plot generally declined after intervention and then gradually increased to greater than original diversity. After logging there was a reduction in richness per plot and an increase in species richness per stem in all but the lightest selective treatments. The change in species diversity was related to the intensity of the logging, however the time taken for species richness to return to pre-logging levels was similar in all silvicultural treatments and was not effected by the intensity of treatment. These results suggest that light selective logging in these forests mainly affects dominant species. The return to high diversity after only a short time under all silvicultural regimes suggests that sustainability and the manipulation of species composition for desired management outcomes is possible.     

Mammal distribution in a Central African logging concession area

We used data collected during a routine forest inventory to prepare a management plan for a logging concession in Gabon to identify the biophysical and human factors that better explain the distribution of mammal species within the logged-over landscape. Results of a Multiple Correspondence Analysis show that the distribution of mammals within the forest concession is more influenced by roads and hunting than by the direct effects of logging. The structure of the canopy and that of the understorey are also important factors explaining the distribution of mammals within the concession. Linear regressions and Spearman correlation tests were computed to assess the significance of the correlation between the probability of encounter for a particular species and the distance from main roads. Small diurnal monkeys were found far from the villages and between 3 and 10 km from the main roads. Elephants were equally found close or far from roads and do not seem to be affected by hunting activities. Red duikers and the yellow back duikers avoided hunted zones and were significantly more abundant far from roads. Other species like gorillas, chimpanzees or forest buffaloes show no negative relationship with distance to roads and were observed close to villages. We show also how using routinely collected data without research purposes, can be used to propose practical recommendations to managers to limit the negative impacts of logging activities within the concession.     

Microclimatic buffering by logging residues and forest edges reduces clear‐cutting impacts on forest bryophytes

Question: The practice of extracting logging residues after clear‐cutting for bioenergy purposes is spreading. Logging residues constitute a shelter in clear‐cut areas and therefore concerns have been expressed that their removal could make the ground and its vegetation more exposed to extreme microclimatic conditions. We asked whether logging residues and forest edges can protect ground‐dwelling forest bryophytes from fatal microclimate events following clear‐cutting. Location: Boreal forests of central Sweden. Methods: Using transplants of eight forest floor bryophyte species we experimentally analysed the sheltering effect (less solar radiation and less wind) of logging residues and forest edges in seven clear‐cut areas. Transplants were placed in two contrasting positions in each area; near a north‐facing forest edge and in the centre of the clear‐cut area. In each position, half of the transplants were covered by a layer of spruce branches and the other half was left uncovered. We estimated proportion of apparently living shoots (apparent vitality) and measured radial growth of transplants during one growing season. Results: Position in the clear‐cut area, but not cover of spruce branches, clearly influenced radial growth. Vitality scores were higher among transplants covered with branches and the lowest apparent vitality was observed in uncovered transplants in the middle of clear‐cut areas. The change in area of apparently living shoots during the course of the experiment (growth minus mortality) was unaffected by branch cover close to the edge but positively affected in the centre of the clear‐cut area. In general, the effect of branch cover on bryophytes was higher in the centre of clear‐cut areas. Here, climatic measurements showed that branch cover buffers during periods of extreme microclimates. Conclusions: Extraction of logging residues after clear‐felling may reduce the survival of some ground‐dwelling forest organisms. The additional sheltering provided by branches was unimportant close to forest edges. We suggest smaller clear‐cut areas, green‐tree retention and other ways to make logged areas shadier and less windy to mitigate the reduced shelter caused by harvest of logging residues.     

Plant functional types: a promising tool for management and restoration of degraded lands

Abstract. Throughout the Mediterranean region, vegetation dynamics are affected by human activities which are either ‘stresses’ or ‘disturbances’, depending on their frequency, intensity and spatial distribution. To minimize or reduce anthropogenic degradation caused by land use and other disturbances, it is necessary to understand and predict the various responses of plant communities to disturbances. In particular, detailed but integrative approaches are required to assimilate large databases on vegetation and to make them directly useful for managers and restorers. We describe two case studies undertaken to evaluate the effects of logging or overgrazing on plant species diversity in pine forests of southern France and steppe ecosystems of southern Tunisia. Both studies employed the same methodology to identify plant functional traits (morphological, life history and regeneration traits) associated with community response to disturbance. The results of these analyses allowed us to develop state and transition models that could be used to plan and predict ecosystem trajectories, assess ongoing degradation processes and monitor community and ecosystem responses to management and restoration practices. We discuss the relevance and the use of plant functional types (PFTs) as tools for ecosystem management and planning and for monitoring restoration in southern Europe, northern Africa and elsewhere. Using this approach it is possible to improve management strategies for the conservation, restoration and sustainable exploitation of biodiversity and of ecosystems.     

Influence of harvest gaps and coarse woody material on click beetles (Coleoptera: Elateridae) in Maine’s Acadian forest

In order to maintain biodiversity in forests, it has been recommended that harvests be designed after patterns of natural disturbance. Using a long-term study that includes harvest treatments designed to emulate tree-fall gap disturbances in Maine’s Acadian forest, we examined how the species richness, abundance, diversity, and assemblage similarity of click beetles inhabiting coarse woody material (CWM) were affected by gap harvesting and CWM characteristics (diameter, degree of decay, and type of wood). There were few differences in beetle assemblages between 0.07 and 0.12 ha harvest gap treatments. Four of the most common species had higher abundances under a closed forest canopy than within harvest gaps. Species richness and total abundance were higher in CWM that had larger diameters and were more decayed. Species assemblages also differed with the degree of wood decomposition. Diversity was higher in CWM from softwood trees than hardwood trees. Results from this study suggest that small (<0.2 ha) harvest gaps with living trees retained throughout the gap can maintain click beetle assemblages similar to that of an unharvested forest. Forest managers also need to address the temporal continuity of CWM, including different types of wood (hardwood and softwood), a range of decay conditions, and a range of diameter classes, especially larger diameters (>35 cm).