Transposon mutagenesis and cloning of the genes encoding the enzymes of fengycin biosynthesis inBacillus subtilis

A total of 20Bacillus subtilis F29-3 mutants defective in fengycin biosynthesis was obtained by Tn917 mutagenesis. Cloning and mapping results showed that the transposon in these mutants was inserted in eleven different locations on the chromosome. We were able to use the chromosomal sequence adjacent to the transposon as a probe to screen for cosmid clones containing the fengycin biosynthesis genes. One of the clones obtained, pFC660, was 46 kb long. Eight transposon insertion sites were mapped within this plasmid. Among the eleven different mutants analyzed, four mutants had Tn917 inserted in regions which encoded peptide sequences similar to part of gramicidin S synthetase, surfactin synthetase, and tyrocidine synthetase. Our results suggest that fengycin is synthesized nonribosomally by the multienzyme thiotemplate mechanism.     

Domain redistribution within ergosterol-containing model membranes in the presence of the antimicrobial compound fengycin

The cyclic lipopeptide fengycin, produced by Bacillus subtilis, exhibits its antimicrobial capabilities by altering the integrity of the cell membrane of plant pathogens. Previous work has correlated fengycin activity with membrane characteristics, such as sterol content. This work focused on the influence of fengycin on supported lipid bilayers containing varying levels of ergosterol. Total internal reflection fluorescence (TIRF) microscopy was used to visualize and distinguish ordered (L_β/L_o) and disordered (L_α/L_d) domains in the model membranes following exposure to low (50 μg) and high (500 μg) fengycin doses. Application of an initial low dose of fengycin to 0% and 3% ergosterol-containing bilayers resulted in redistribution of L_α/L_β and L_o/L_d domains, respectively, which the bilayers compensated and corrected for over time. These membranes were unable to tolerate a second 50 μg dose or a single high fengycin dose. The 6% ergosterol bilayers were able to tolerate sequential low doses of fengycin. Exposure of these bilayers to the high fengycin dose caused a decrease in the number of L_o domains, albeit less than that seen in the 0% and 3% ergosterol bilayers. Bilayers containing 12% ergosterol, exhibited the least amount of change after fengycin exposure. These were the only bilayer to exhibit an increase in area taken up by ordered domains. These results suggest fengycin may preferentially act on the L_β or L_o phase, the area in which ergosterol resides. Bilayers containing low levels of ergosterol appear to be more sensitive to the lipopeptide, suggesting ergosterol plays a role in buffering perturbations caused by fengycin.     

Characterization of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Fusarium graminearum</Emphasis> inhibitory lipopeptide from <Emphasis Type="Italic">Bacillus subtilis</Emphasis> IB

Bacillus subtilis strain IB exhibiting inhibitory activity against the Fusarium head blight disease fungus Fusarium graminearum was isolated and identified. The major inhibitory compound was purified from the culture broth through anion exchange, hydrophobic interaction, and reverse phase high-performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC) steps. It was a 1,463-Da lipopeptide and had an amino acid composition consisting of Ala, Glx, Ile, Orn, Pro, Thr, and Tyr at a molar ratio of 1:3:1:1:1:1:2. Electrospray ionization mass spectrometry/mass spectrometry (ESI MS/MS) analyses of the natural and the ring-opened peptides showed the antagonist was fengycin, a kind of macrolactone molecule with antifungal activity produced by several Bacillus strains. Fluorescence microscopic analysis indicated this peptide permeabilized and disrupted F. graminearum hyphae.     

Lipopeptide overproduction by cell immobilization on iron-enriched light polymer particles

The study concerns surfactin and/or fengycin batch production by immobilized cells of Bacillus subtilis ATCC 21332. Light carriers designed for a three phase inverse fluidized bed biofilm reactor (TPFIBR) were used. With respect to the biofilm reactor development, a new support based on iron grafting onto polypropylene foams has been proposed. A suspension solid-state grafting process was applied to graft ferric acetylacetonate onto polypropylene (PP) foams with a density of 0.3–0.7 g/cm³. The iron contents grafted onto PP increased with the reaction time and then it tended to level off. The iron contents at 7.5 and 10 h are 0.74 and 0.75 wt%, respectively. It was specified that the equilibrium was reached at 7.5 h. Influence of particles on lipopeptide production was analyzed in two kinds of experiments: preliminary colonization step of particles, followed by production step in modified culture medium (named in this work colonization step) or direct addition of pellets in culture medium (named production step). All PP+ iron pellets promoted biomass enhancement. The production yield was modified for all types of PP supports, containing respectively 0, 0.35 and 0.75% of iron. The immobilized cultures produced 2.09–4.3 times more biosurfactants than planktonic cells. In production experiments addition of carriers seemed to modify the ratio between surfactin and fengycin with an enhancement of the fengycin production. The highest concentration of fengycin was obtained with addition of pellets containing 0.35% of iron.     

Isolation and characterization of a co-producer of fengycins and surfactins, endophytic Bacillus amyloliquefaciens ES-2, from Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi

An endophytic bacterium was isolated from Chinese medicinal plant Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi. The phylogenetic and physiological characzterization indicated that the isolate, strain ES-2, was Bacillus amyloliquefaciens, which produced two families of secondary metabolites with broad-spectrum antibacterial and antifungal activities. Culture filtrate of ES-2 displayed antagonism against some phytopathogenic, food-borne pathogenic and spoilage bacteria and fungi owing to the existence of antimicrobial compounds. A HPLC-MS analysis showed two series of ion peaks from the culture filtrate. A further electrospray ionization/collision-induced dissociation spectrum revealed that the two series ion peaks represented different fengycin homologues and surfactin homologues, respectively, which had a potential for food preservation and the control of several fungal plant diseases.     

Interaction of antimicrobial cyclic lipopeptides from Bacillus subtilis influences their effect on spore germination and membrane permeability in fungal plant pathogens

Bacillus subtilis cyclic lipopeptides are known to have various antimicrobial effects including different types of interactions with the cell membranes of plant pathogenic fungi. The various spectra of activities of the three main lipopeptide families (fengycins, iturins, and surfactins) seem to be linked to their respective mechanisms of action on the fungal biomembrane. Few studies have shown the combined effect of more than one family of lipopeptides on fungal plant pathogens. In an effort to understand the effect of producing multiple lipopeptide families, sensitivity and membrane permeability of spores from four fungal plant pathogens (Alternaria solani, Fusarium sambucinum, Rhizopus stolonifer, and Verticillium dahliae) were assayed in response to lipopeptides, both individually and as combined treatments. Results showed that inhibition of spores was highly variable depending on the tested fungus-lipopeptide treatment. Results also showed that inhibition of the spores was closely associated with SYTOX stain absorption suggesting effects of efficient treatments on membrane permeability. Combined lipopeptide treatments revealed additive, synergistic or sometimes mutual inhibition of beneficial effects.     

Purification of the fengycin synthetase multienzyme system from Bacillus subtilis b213

The purification of the multienzyme system producing the lipodecapeptide fengycin in Bacillus subtilis b213 was investigated. By gel filtration of a cell free extract of this organism three enzyme fractions were obtained from which five multifunctional components of fengycin synthetase were separated by high resolution anion-exchange FPLC procedures. These proteins were characterized by their thioester formation activities with ¹⁴C-labeled substrate amino acids and by N-terminal sequencing. Correlation of these data with the DNA sequences of the pps (fen) operons in three B. subtilis strains provided detailed knowledge on the structural and functional organization of fengycin synthetase.     

解淀粉芽孢杆菌TF28抗菌脂肽芬芥素的分离鉴定及抑菌作用

对一株解淀粉芽孢杆菌TF28产生的抗菌脂肽进行分离鉴定及抑菌活性研究,采用酸沉淀、乙酸乙酯和甲醇萃取技术制备了抗菌脂肽粗提物,经过2次HPLC分离纯化,在保留时间32～42min内获得8个抗菌脂肽纯品,经MALDI-TOF-MS鉴定为芬芥素(fengycins),对尖孢镰刀菌和禾谷镰刀菌显示出较强的抑菌活性,该研究为提高菌株TF28抗菌脂肽产量的定向遗传改造奠定基础。     

Optimization of Inactivation of Endospores of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Bacillus cereus</Emphasis> in Milk by Surfactin and Fengycin Using a Response Surface Method

In this paper, the sterilization of surfactin and fengycin to Bacillus cereus was observed, and the optimization of the inactivation of surfactin and fengycin to spores of B. cereus by a response surface methodology was studied. Results showed that surfactin and fengycin had high sterilization to B. cereus, whose minimal inhibitory concentration was 31.25 μM and 62.5 μM respectively. The optimization result indicated that spores of B. cereus could be inactivated by two orders of magnitude when the temperature was 20.41°C, the action time was 21.13 h, and the concentration (surfactin/fengycin molar ratio 1:1) was 54.20 μM.     

新型抗菌肽——表面活性素、伊枯草菌素和丰原素

表面活性素（surfactin）、伊枯草菌素（iturin）和丰原素（fengycin）是一类主要由革兰阳性芽胞杆菌通过非核糖体合成途径产生的抗菌肽,一般是由1个β-羟基脂肪酸与7～10个氨基酸肽链以酰胺键连接而成的环肽,具有抗细菌、抗真菌、抗病毒、抗肿瘤等生物活性,在医疗方面具有良好的应用前景。目前,人们对这3种新型抗菌肽在医药领域中的研究进展所知甚少,故本文对其发现历史、结构特点、作用机制、生物合成和应用价值进行阐述,为后续研究提供借鉴。