Phylogeny‐based species delimitations and the evolution of host associations in symbiotic zoanthids (Anthozoa,Zoanthidea) of the wider Caribbean region

Zoanthids are marine cnidarians with simple morphologies that challenge our ability to delineate species. Phylogenetic analyses of internal transcribed spacer (ITS) sequences are consistent with six morphologically described species from the wider Caribbean region, and reveal four additional species that were not previously recognized. Histological examinations of unidentified species reveal cryptic Isozoanthus and Edwardsiidae (Actiniaria) species. Observations of zoanthids in situ reveal geographic distributions that range from regional to trans‐Atlantic. ITS and 16S data are consistent with hypotheses of paraphyly in some higher taxa of zoanthids; however, the clades of zoanthids recovered in both analyses can largely be defined by their host associations, thereby supporting phylogenetic conservatism in zoanthid–host association evolution. The single clear example of a zoanthid switching hosts was accompanied by a compensatory loss of endosymbiosis, which maintained the match in photosynthetic symbioses between zoanthids and sponge hosts. © 2009 The Linnean Society of London, Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2009, 156 , 223–238.     

网角海绵目(Dictyoceratida)谱系发育与形态发生分析

采用形态和分子数据相结合的方法探讨网角海绵目谱系发育和骨骼形态发生问题。根据11个普通海绵种的18S rRNA序列,结合11个形态与结构特征以及生化和细胞学性状,对网角海绵目的系统发育关系进行综合分析。分子系统学分析表明,网角海绵目及角骨海绵科为单系类群,具有宽口型领细胞室的掘海绵科属于网角海绵目。表型数据显示,网角海绵目内的4个科(Dysideidae,Thorectidae,Irciniidae,Spongiidae)为单系类群。网角海绵目的单系性表明具有等级分化特征的海绵质骨架纤维为同源特征,而领细胞室类型的分化,即宽口型和二咽型领细胞室的分化,是在网角海绵内部类群分化的同时发生的。结合角海绵类及相关类群的化石记录和文中关于网角海绵谱系发育分析推测,早期网角海绵可能主要通过胶原纤维粘附外源碎屑颗粒来支撑内部骨架系统;网角海绵的演化向两个方向发展:①合成多种海绵质纤维取代外源物形成骨架系统(网角海绵和指角海绵);②合成硅质骨针取代外源颗粒构成海绵骨架(现代所有具有骨针的普通海绵)。     

Diversity and specificity of Caribbean sponge–zoanthid symbioses: a foundation for understanding the adaptive significance of symbioses and generating hypotheses about higher-order systematics

The diversity and specificity of symbiotic associations may be useful in revealing the underlying ecology of symbioses and evolutionary relationships of symbiotic species. Symbioses between coral reef sponges and zoanthids are widespread and common in the greater Caribbean region, although the diversity and specificity of the species involved have only been explored at a few sites and the adaptive significance has only been examined for three combinations. We identified extensive diversity among sponges that associate with zoanthids by compiling sponge–zoanthid species associations from field surveys, the literature, and museum collections, and examined the patterns of specificity at multiple levels of sponge and zoanthid taxonomy. The results obtained indicate that facultative sponges are highly specific to the species of their partners whereas obligate zoanthids are not. The patterns of specificity among sponges and zoanthids suggest that many of these associations are not likely to be parasitic. Sponges harbouring photosynthetic endosymbionts associate at a disproportionately high frequency with zoanthids that harbour photosynthetic endosymbionts. Zoanthids embed in the surfaces of sponges to various degrees, resulting in a range of intimacy that negatively correlates with the number of hosts and polyp volume of zoanthids. Dendrograms based on the similarity among associations are largely consistent with current hypotheses of sponge higher-order systematics, but inconsistent with the current hypotheses of zoanthid systematics, and they highlight the potential utility of ecological characters in systematic analyses.  © 2007 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society , 2007, 92 , 695–711.     

Eocene siliceous sponges from the Ebro Basin (Catalonia, Spain)

The Eocene (Bartonian) marls of the La Guixa Member and Gurb Member, Vic Marls Formation (Ebro Basin, Catalonia, Spain), contain a very rich and diversified siliceous sponge fauna. The fauna is dominated by hexactinellids; lithistids and other demosponges are rare. It consists of 16 species representing 16 genera. Eleven new species and two new genera are proposed for these sponges: Reguantella cavernosa nov. gen. nov. sp., Regadrella concinna nov. sp. (both Hexactinellida, Lyssacinosa), Eurete clava nov. sp., Pleuroguettardia iberica nov. sp., Aphrocallistes almeriae nov. sp., Hexactinella informis nov. sp. (all Hexactinellida, Hexactinosa), Brachiolites munterensis nov. sp., Centrosia viquensis nov. sp., Callicylix eocenicus nov. sp., Rhizocheton robustus nov. sp. (all Hexactinellida, Lychniscosa), Propetrosia pristina nov. gen. nov. sp. (Demospongia, Haplosclerida). Some genera of sponges in this fauna are still extant, but, in general, the predominant ones are very close in morphology, and, without doubt, closely related to the Late Cretaceous sponges. This fauna also differs considerably, in terms of composition, from most other described faunas of Tertiary sponges from the Mediterranean region, which are dominated by lithistid sponges. Lithistid sponges are rare in this investigated assemblage, which seems most similar to an as yet undescribed Eocene fauna from Italy. There is ecological differentiation in the proportions of particular sponges in various outcrops and/or stratigraphical levels that is clearly associated with water-depth-related controlling factor(s): Munter, Tona and Sta. Cecilia represent the deepest facies, Gurb is intermediate, and St. Roc and Vespella are the most shallow. The exact bathymetric position of the sponge fauna is difficult to estimate, but it seems that 100 m (but probably 200 m and more in the case of the deepest parts) of water depth may be inferred for this facies.