Molecular genetics of peripheral populations of Nova Scotian Unionidae (Mollusca: Bivalvia)

Peripheral populations of eight species of freshwater bivalves (Unionidae.) extending their geographic ranges into Nova Scotia, Canada, were examined electrophoretically to determine both the extent of genetic variability within such populations, and whether the hypothesized pathway of colonization across the Isthmus of Chignecto is reflected in patterns of genetic resemblance among these populations. The Nova Scotian species examined could be separated into two groups based on levels of observed heterozygosity and levels of variability in allele frequencies. The first group is characterized by low levels of heterozygosity and polymorphism compared with north-eastern American populations, and in the case of one species, Elliptio complanala, considerable variability in allele frequencies among populations occurring in similar habitats in different drainages. Populations of E. complanata from Nova Scotia can be differentiated from conspecific populations on the southern Atlantic Slope by possession of fast alleles at two loci. Multivariate analyses define subgroups within populations of E. complanata consistent with hypothesis that the species invaded Nova Scotia by way of the Isthmus of Chignecto, and then split into two groups, one of which colonized Cape Breton to the north and the other of which colonized southern areas of the Province. The second group of Nova Scotian species is characterized by little reduction in heterozygosity and polymorphism compared with values observed among north-eastern American conspecifics or congeners, little variability in allele frequencies from population to population, and little evidence to suggest that these species were dependent on the land bridge to invade the Province. The type of dispersal is hypothesized to be responsible, in part, for these differences: larvae of species in the first group rely on a parasitic attachment to fish with territorial habits limited to fresh water, and are thus likely to invade new drainages separated by salt water by chance, in small numbers, and in stepping-stone fashion. Species in the second group parasitize anadromous or saltwater tolerant hosts, are likely to be introduced into new habitats in greater numbers and/or receive greater amounts of gene flow subsequent to colonization, and seem less dependent on land-bridges to colonize new habitats.     

The impact of climate change on the physical characteristics of the larger lakes in the English Lake District

1. The larger lakes of the English Lake District have been the subject of intensive scientific study for more than 60 years. Year‐to‐year variations in the weather have recently been shown to have a major effect on their physical characteristics. The area is mild but very wet and the dynamics of the lakes are strongly influenced by the movement of weather systems across the Atlantic. 2. Here, we combine the results of long‐term measurements and the projections from a Regional Climate Model (RCM) to assess the potential impact of climate change on the surface temperature and residence times of the lakes. 3. The RCM outputs used were produced by the U.K. Hadley Centre and are based on the IPCC ‘A2’ scenario for the emission of greenhouse gases. These suggest that winters in the area will be very much milder and wetter by the 2050s and that there will be a pronounced reduction in the summer rainfall. 4. An analysis of the meteorological data acquired between 1940 and 2000 shows that there have been progressive increases in the winter air temperature and in the rainfall which are correlated with the long‐term change in the North Atlantic Oscillation. The trends reported during the summer were less pronounced and were correlated with the increased frequency of anticyclonic days and a decrease in the frequency of westerly days in the British Isles. 5. A simple model of the year‐to‐year variations in surface temperatures showed that the highest winter temperatures were recorded in the deeper lakes and the highest summer temperatures in the lakes with the shallowest thermoclines. When this model was used to predict the surface temperatures of the lakes in the 2050s, the greatest winter increase (+1.08 °C) was observed in the shallowest lake and the greatest summer increase (+2.18 °C) in the lake with the shallowest thermocline. 6. The model used to estimate the seasonal variation in the residence time of the lakes showed that the most pronounced variations were recorded in lakes with a short residence time. Average winter residence times ranged from a minimum of 10 days to a maximum of 436 days and average summer values from a minimum of 23 days to a maximum of 215 days. When this model was used to predict the residence time of the lakes in the 2050s, the greatest winter decrease (−20%) was observed in the smallest lake and the greatest summer increase (+92%) in the lake with the shortest residence time. 7. The results are discussed in relation to trends reported elsewhere in Europe and the impact of changes in the atmospheric circulation on the dynamics of the lakes. The most serious limnological effects were those projected for the summer and included a general increase in the stability of the lakes and a decrease in the flushing rate of the lakes with short residence times.     

Maximum rate of increase in the African Elephant

The theoretical maximum rate of increase for the African elephant is calculated at 7%. This figure agrees closely with the rate of increase observed at Addo Elephant Park, the highest rate of increase reported for elephants living under natural conditions. An elephant population increasing at the maximum rate soon reaches a stable age distribution in which 48% of the animals are older than 11 years of age, (the age of first reproduction) and 6.7% are calves (less than one year old). Several papers have reported frequencies of calves in natural populations of up to twice this percentage. Calculations are presented to show that such high calf frequencies are both theoretically impossible on a sustained basis, and internally inconsistent with the population data presented in these papers.     

Transmission and Scanning Electron Microscopy of the Evaginative Budding Process in Heliophrya sp. (Ciliata,Suctoria)1

ABSTRACT. A sessile, tentacle-bearing protozoon, Heliophrya sp. (Suctoria, Ciliata), reproduces asexually by evaginative budding to form a ciliated swarmer, which begins metamorphosis to the adult form within 30 min of its release from the parent cell. Morphological features of embryogenesis were investigated using transmission and scanning electron microscopy and found to correspond, with certain exceptions, to the few previous reports concerning evaginative budding in suctorians. Following invagination of a portion of the pellicle to form an embryonic cavity within the parent cell, numerous kinetosomes, apparently formed de novo, organize into rows which surround the embryonic cavity and eventually develop cilia that project into the cavity. When the cavity is complete, its walls are extruded through an opening in the parent cell surface. Parent cell cytoplasm streams into the incipient swarmer, thus supplying it with at least the minimum requirement of all cytoplasmic organelles. The ciliated swarmer remains attached to its parent cell for several minutes before it detaches. A complete pellicle is formed in both parent and swarmer prior to detachment. The numerous mitochondria underlying the parent cell pellicle in the vicinity of the attachment area suggest that cross wall formation is an energy-dependent process.     

A multivariate approach to the determination of faunal structures among European butterfly species (Lepidoptera: Rhopalocera)

Multivariate analyses of 393 butterfly species over 85 geographical areas (R- and Q-data matrices) in Europe and North Africa have produced a consistent pattern of faunal structures (units and regions). Prominent features to emerge are the latitudinal zonation of geographical units and the division of the Mediterranean into western and eastern components; southwards in Europe, endemicity increases whereas faunal structures decrease in spatial dimensions. Central Europe–from the Urals to the British Isles–forms a single large faunal structure (extent unit and region). A model has been constructed to account for Pleistocene evolutionary changes and endemism in European butterflies and for the east-west taxonomic divisions in the extent faunal structure which dominates central Europe. Periodic Pleistocene climatic changes have resulted in cycles of population extinction, isolation, evolution and migration, but the nature and timing of events has depended on the environmental tolerances of species belonging to different faunal units. During Pleistocene glaciations, southern species have been relatively static and more isolated and have evolved independently. By comparison, northern species have been more mobile and have migrated over large distances. Contact and hybrid zones among cosmopolitan species in northern Europe are probably of some antiquity. They result from persistent survival and isolation of refuge populations in the west and east Mediterranean during glacial phases; dispersal from these refuges leads to their regeneration during each interglacial.     

Biomass: Is it a useful tool in paleocommunity reconstruction?

In general, more of the biomass of the community is preserved than is its numerical abundance. Thus, the paleontologist, on the average, works with more of the community when biomass is used. Community characteristics such as taxon dominance and habitat proportions are at least as accurately derived from biomass as numerical abundance. The use of biomass is clearly more appropriate in describing energy flow and trophic proportions. Whenever possible, biomass should be used as a complement to numerical abundance in future paleoecologic reconstructions.     

Egg-laying by the speckled wood butterfly (Pararge aegeria): the role of female behaviour, host plant abundance and temperature

ABSTRACT.

• 1 Egg-laying by Pararge aegeria (L.) was studied in relation to host plant abundance, temperature and behaviour in one woodland site in central England.
• 2 Eggs were laid on the undersides of leaves of fifteen of thirty-one species of grass located in the study site. Most were deposited singly although on several occasions a number of females laid on a single leaf.
• 3 There was no clear relationship between host plant abundance and host plant use, the species used being widespread and abundant.
• 4 Most eggs were laid on plants within the temperature range 24–30°C. In spring and later summer these sites were in sunlit open areas but in midsummer they were in the woodland ground layer.
• 5 Females distributed their eggs over a large area, usually making a dispersal flight after laying an egg.