Multiple Phenotypic Changes Associated with Large-Scale Horizontal Gene Transfer

Horizontal gene transfer often leads to phenotypic changes within recipient organisms independent of any immediate evolutionary benefits. While secondary phenotypic effects of horizontal transfer (i.e., changes in growth rates) have been demonstrated and studied across a variety of systems using relatively small plasmids and phage, little is known about the magnitude or number of such costs after the transfer of larger regions. Here we describe numerous phenotypic changes that occur after a large-scale horizontal transfer event (∼1 Mb megaplasmid) within Pseudomonas stutzeri including sensitization to various stresses as well as changes in bacterial behavior. These results highlight the power of horizontal transfer to shift pleiotropic relationships and cellular networks within bacterial genomes. They also provide an important context for how secondary effects of transfer can bias evolutionary trajectories and interactions between species. Lastly, these results and system provide a foundation to investigate evolutionary consequences in real time as newly acquired regions are ameliorated and integrated into new genomic contexts.     

Foraging area fidelity for Kemp's ridleys in the Gulf of Mexico

For many marine species, locations of key foraging areas are not well defined. We used satellite telemetry and switching state‐space modeling (SSM) to identify distinct foraging areas used by Kemp's ridley turtles (Lepidochelys kempii) tagged after nesting during 1998–2011 at Padre Island National Seashore, Texas, USA (PAIS; N = 22), and Rancho Nuevo, Tamaulipas, Mexico (RN; N = 9). Overall, turtles traveled a mean distance of 793.1 km (±347.8 SD) to foraging sites, where 24 of 31 turtles showed foraging area fidelity (FAF) over time (N = 22 in USA, N = 2 in Mexico). Multiple turtles foraged along their migratory route, prior to arrival at their “final” foraging sites. We identified new foraging “hotspots” where adult female Kemp's ridley turtles spent 44% of their time during tracking (i.e., 2641/6009 tracking days in foraging mode). Nearshore Gulf of Mexico waters served as foraging habitat for all turtles tracked in this study; final foraging sites were located in water <68 m deep and a mean distance of 33.2 km (±25.3 SD) from the nearest mainland coast. Distance to release site, distance to mainland shore, annual mean sea surface temperature, bathymetry, and net primary production were significant predictors of sites where turtles spent large numbers of days in foraging mode. Spatial similarity of particular foraging sites selected by different turtles over the 13‐year tracking period indicates that these areas represent critical foraging habitat, particularly in waters off Louisiana. Furthermore, the wide distribution of foraging sites indicates that a foraging corridor exists for Kemp's ridleys in the Gulf. Our results highlight the need for further study of environmental and bathymetric components of foraging sites and prey resources contained therein, as well as international cooperation to protect essential at‐sea foraging habitats for this imperiled species.     

Secondarily diurnal geckos return to cost of locomotion typical of diurnal lizards

Previous studies showed that nocturnal geckos evolved a low energetic cost of locomotion (Cmin), which increases maximum aerobic speed and partially offsets the decrease in maximal oxygen consumption caused by activity at low nocturnal temperatures. Because the advantage of a low Cmin should apply at high diurnal temperatures as well as at low nocturnal temperatures, I hypothesized that Cmin remained low in geckos that have secondarily evolved diurnality. I measured Cmin in two secondarily diurnal gecko species, Rhoptropus bradfieldi (4.7 g+/-0.71 SE) and Phelsuma madagascariensis (23.9 g+/-3.7 SE), during steady exercise on a treadmill and rejected the hypothesis that secondarily diurnal geckos retain the low Cmin of their nocturnal ancestors. The Cmin in R. bradfieldi (2.468 mL O2 g-1 km-1+/-0.489 SE) and P. madagascariensis (1.389 mL O2 g-1 km-1+/-0.119 SE) returned to values typical of ancestrally diurnal lizards. This suggests that there is a trade-off that outweighs the performance advantage of low Cmin in a diurnal environment and that may cause an evolutionary association between Cmin and activity time (diurnality/nocturnality).     

Enterococcus faecalis 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A synthase,an enzyme of isopentenyl diphosphate biosynthesis

Biosynthesis of the isoprenoid precursor isopentenyl diphosphate (IPP) proceeds via two distinct pathways. Sequence comparisons and microbiological data suggest that multidrug-resistant strains of gram-positive cocci employ exclusively the mevalonate pathway for IPP biosynthesis. Bacterial mevalonate pathway enzymes therefore offer potential targets for development of active site-directed inhibitors for use as antibiotics. We used the PCR and Enterococcus faecalis genomic DNA to isolate the mvaS gene that encodes 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A (HMG-CoA) synthase, the second enzyme of the mevalonate pathway. mvaS was expressed in Escherichia coli from a pET28 vector with an attached N-terminal histidine tag. The expressed enzyme was purified by affinity chromatography on Ni(2+)-agarose to apparent homogeneity and a specific activity of 10 micromol/min/mg. Analytical ultracentrifugation showed that the enzyme is a dimer (mass, 83.9 kDa; s(20,w), 5.3). Optimal activity occurred in 2.0 mM MgCl(2) at 37(o)C. The DeltaH(a) was 6,000 cal. The pH activity profile, optimum activity at pH 9.8, yielded a pK(a) of 8.8 for a dissociating group, presumably Glu78. The stoichiometry per monomer of acetyl-CoA binding was 1.2 +/- 0.2 and that of covalent acetylation was 0.60 +/- 0.02. The K(m) for the hydrolysis of acetyl-CoA was 10 microM. Coupled conversion of acetyl-CoA to mevalonate was demonstrated by using HMG-CoA synthase and acetoacetyl-CoA thiolase/HMG-CoA reductase from E. faecalis.     

Structure-based optimization of pyrazolo-pyrimidine and -pyridine inhibitors of PI3-kinase

Starting from HTS hit 1a, X-ray co-crystallization and molecular modeling were used to design potent and selective inhibitors of PI3-kinase. Bioavailablity in this series was improved through careful modulation of physicochemical properties. Compound 12 displayed in vivo knockdown of PI3K pharmacodynamic markers such as pAKT, pPRAS40, and pS6RP in a PC3 prostate cancer xenograft model.     

Effects of temperature on the development of Gregarina cubensis (Apicomplexa: Eugregarinida) parasitizing Blaberus discoidalis (Blattaria: Blaberidae)

Gregarina cubensis is an apicomplexan parasite that infects the intestinal lumen of the death's head cockroach (Blaberus discoidalis). This study evaluated the effects of 3 temperatures on the development and viability of G. cubensis. Three groups of B. discoidalis were inoculated with G. cubensis oocysts and maintained at 15, 27, and 40 C. The alimentary canal was removed from 3 cockroaches in each group every 24 hr until mature gametocysts were found in the rectum or feces, and prepared for histological examination. Gregarina cubensis establishment and development were more rapid at 15 C than at 27 C. Development of G. cubensis at 40 C did not progress beyond the intracellular stage.     

Ebola virus glycoprotein 1: identification of residues important for binding and postbinding events

The filoviruses Ebola virus (EBOV) and Marburg virus (MARV) are responsible for devastating hemorrhagic fever outbreaks. No therapies are available against these viruses. An understanding of filoviral glycoprotein 1 (GP1) residues involved in entry events would facilitate the development of antivirals. Towards this end, we performed alanine scanning mutagenesis on selected residues in the amino terminus of GP1. Mutant GPs were evaluated for their incorporation onto feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) particles, transduction efficiency, receptor binding, and ability to be cleaved by cathepsins L and B. FIV virions bearing 39 out of 63 mutant glycoproteins transduced cells efficiently, whereas virions bearing the other 24 had reduced levels of transduction. Virions pseudotyped with 23 of the poorly transducing GPs were characterized for their block in entry. Ten mutant GPs were very poorly incorporated onto viral particles. Nine additional mutant GPs (G87A/F88A, K114A/K115A, K140A, G143A, P146A/C147A, F153A/H154A, F159A, F160A, and Y162A) competed poorly with wild-type GP for binding to permissive cells. Four of these nine mutants (P146A/C147A, F153A/H154A, F159A, and F160A) were also inefficiently cleaved by cathepsins. An additional four mutant GPs (K84A, R134A, D150A, and E305/E306A) that were partially defective in transduction were found to compete effectively for receptor binding and were readily cleaved by cathepsins. This finding suggested that this latter group of mutants might be defective at a postbinding, cathepsin cleavage-independent step. In total, our study confirms the role of some GP1 residues in EBOV entry that had previously been recognized and identifies for the first time other residues that are important for productive entry.     

Maximizing Recovery and Detection of Cryptosporidium parvum Oocysts from Spiked Eastern Oyster (Crassostrea virginica) Tissue Samples

Numerous studies have documented the presence of Cryptosporidium parvum, an anthropozoonotic enteric parasite, in molluscan shellfish harvested for commercial purposes. Getting accurate estimates of Cryptosporidium contamination levels in molluscan shellfish is difficult because recovery efficiencies are dependent on the isolation method used. Such estimates are important for determining the human health risks posed by consumption of contaminated shellfish. In the present study, oocyst recovery was compared for multiple methods used to isolate Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts from oysters (Crassostrea virginica) after exposure to contaminated water for 24 h. The immunomagnetic separation (IMS) and immunofluorescent antibody procedures from Environmental Protection Agency method 1623 were adapted for these purposes. Recovery efficiencies for the different methods were also determined using oyster tissue homogenate and hemolymph spiked with oocysts. There were significant differences in recovery efficiency among the different treatment groups (P < 0.05). We observed the highest recovery efficiency (i.e., 51%) from spiked samples when hemolymph was kept separate during the homogenization of the whole oyster meat but was then added to the pellet following diethyl ether extraction of the homogenate, prior to IMS. Using this processing method, as few as 10 oocysts could be detected in a spiked homogenate sample by nested PCR. In the absence of water quality indicators that correlate with Cryptosporidium contamination levels, assessment of shellfish safety may rely on accurate quantification of oocyst loads, necessitating the use of processing methods that maximize oocyst recovery. The results from this study have important implications for regulatory agencies charged with determining the safety of molluscan shellfish for human consumption.     

Synthesis and structure-activity relationship of N-acyl-Gly-, N-acyl-Sar- and N-blocked-boroPro inhibitors of FAP, DPP4, and POP

The structure-activity relationship of various N-acyl-Gly-, N-acyl-Sar-, and N-blocked-boroPro derivatives against three prolyl peptidases was explored. Several N-acyl-Gly- and N-blocked-boroPro compounds showed low nanomolar inhibitory activity against fibroblast activation protein (FAP) and prolyl oligopeptidase (POP) and selectivity against dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP4). N-Acyl-Sar-boroPro analogs retained selectivity against DPP4 and potent POP inhibitory activity but displayed decreased FAP inhibitory activity.