Repertoire size,auditory templates,and selective vocal learning in songbirds

When vocal variability, here measured by song repertoire size, increases in songbirds, it may become increasingly difficult to encode genetically all the information which is required to ensure the learning of only conspecific songs. Marsh wrens (Cistothorus palustris) have sizeable song repertoires, and while no vocal mimicry is evident in the field, males will readily learn heterospecific songs in the laboratory. These data, together with data from the literature, support the proposed relationship between increased repertoire sizes and reduced specificity of the innate auditory template which guides vocal learning.     

Sensitive phases for song learning: Effects of social interaction and individual variation

Male marsh wrens (Cistothorus palustris) do not ordinarily learn songs from tutor tapes during their first spring, but in two experiments all five males given an opportunity to learn from a live the timing and significance of events in nature. There was marked individual variation in the responses of subjects to seemingly identical laboratory conditions; such differences among individuals are unexplainable but intriguing and warrant further study as more than mere ‘experimental noise’.     

Sedentary life style of Neotropical sedge wrens promotes song imitation

To what extent has the style of song development among songbirds coevolved with other life history strategies? Among Cistothorus wrens in North America, it seems that sedentary or site-faithful habits of marsh wrens, C. palustris, favour song imitation, but seminomadic habits of sedge wrens, C. platensis, favour song improvisation, whereby each male generates a large but unique song repertoire. In this study, we tested whether more sedentary populations of sedge wrens in the Neotropics would imitate songs. At our primary study site near Cartago, Costa Rica, breeding birds were colour-banded during 1995 and 1996, and follow-up surveys revealed that the birds remained at this site the year round. Extensive tape recording and analysis of songs showed that males had large song repertoires (200-300+ songs), and that many songs were shared among neighbouring males. In addition, males only 27 km distant, at La Pastora, used different songs. Furthermore, matched countersinging, in which two males answer each other with identical song types, was recorded near Brasilia, in Brazil. The sharing of songs among permanent neighbours, microgeographical variation in song, and matched countersinging can be achieved only through song imitation, thus revealing a striking difference in the style of song development among different populations of the sedge wren. In the Neotropics, having predictable neighbours throughout life appears to have favoured song imitation, so that individuals can interact using a common, learned code typical of the local population; among more mobile populations in North America, however, individuals improvise large repertoires of species-typical songs, thereby enabling singing males to communicate with any individual, no matter what the population of origin. Strategies of song development must correlate with life history features, and further surveys are needed to make sense of the great diversity of singing behaviours among songbirds. Copyright 1999 The Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour.     

Female marsh wrens do not provide evidence of anatomical specializations of song nuclei for perception of male song

In songbirds the forebrain nuclei HVC (high vocal center) and RA (robust nucleus of the archistriatum) are larger in individuals or species that produce larger song repertoires, but the extent to which the size of these nuclei reflects a need for either producing or perceiving large repertoires is unknown. We, therefore, tested the hypothesis that species differences in the size of song nuclei reflect a commitment of “brain space” to the perceptual processing of conspecific song. The two species of marsh wren (Cistothorus palustris western and eastern) provide a good test case. Western males produce larger song repertoires, and have larger HVC and RA than do eastern males. Female marsh wrens do not sing, and if they use their song nuclei to assess conspecific male song repertoires, then we predicted that measurable cellular and nuclear parameters of HVC and RA would be greater in western than eastern female wrens. For males we confirmed that the volumes of HVC and RA, and cellular parameters of HVC, are greater in western than in eastern birds. These nuclei were also considerably larger in males than in conspecific females. Western and eastern female wrens, however, did not differ in any measured parameters of HVC or RA. Females of these wren species thus do not provide any direct evidence of anatomical specializations of song nuclei for the perceptual processing of conspecific male song. 1994 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Structural analogues of 5-OMe-BPAT: synthesis and interactions with dopamine D2, D3, and serotonin 5-HT1A receptors.

Several structural analogues of 5-methoxy-2-[N-(2-benzamidoethyl)-N-n-propylamino]tetralin (5-OMe-BPAT, 1), a representative of a series of 2-aminotetralin-derived benzamides with potential atypical antipsychotic properties, were synthesized and evaluated for their ability to bind to dopamine D2A, D3, and serotonin 5-HT1A receptors in vitro. The structure affinity relationships revealed that the aromatic ring of the benzamide moiety of 1 contributes to the high affinities for all three receptor subtypes. Furthermore, 1 may interact with the dopamine D2 and D3 receptors through hydrogen bond formation with its carbonyl group. Investigation of the role of the amide hydrogen atom by amide N-alkylation was not conclusive, since conformational aspects may be responsible for the decreased dopaminergic affinities of the N'-alkylated analogues of 1. The effects of the amide modifications on the serotonin 5-HT1A receptor affinity were less pronounced, suggesting that the benzamidoethyl side-chain of 1 as a whole enhances the affinity for this receptor subtype probably through hydrophobic interactions with an accessory binding site. The structural requirements for the substituents at the basic nitrogen atom supported the hypothesis that the 2-aminotetralin moieties of the 2-aminotetralin-derived substituted benzamides may share the same binding sites as the 2-(N,N-di-n-propylamino)tetralins.     

Genetic evidence supports song learning in the three-wattled bellbird Procnias tricarunculata (Cotingidae)

Vocal learning is thought to have evolved in three clades of birds (parrots, hummingbirds, and oscine passerines), and three clades of mammals (whales, bats, and primates). Behavioural data indicate that, unlike other suboscine passerines, the three-wattled bellbird Procnias tricarunculata (Cotingidae) is capable of vocal learning. Procnias tricarunculata shows conspicuous vocal ontogeny, striking geographical variation in song, and rapid temporal change in song within a population. Deprivation studies of vocal development in P. tricarunculata are impractical. Here, we report evidence from mitochondrial DNA sequences and nuclear microsatellite loci that genetic variation within and among the four allopatric breeding populations of P. tricarunculata is not congruent with variation in vocal behaviour. Sequences of the mitochondrial DNA control region document extensive haplotype sharing among localities and song types, and no phylogenetic resolution of geographical populations or behavioural groups. The vocally differentiated, allopatric breeding populations of P. tricarunculata are only weakly genetically differentiated populations, and are not distinct taxa. Mitochondrial DNA and microsatellite variation show small (2.9% and 13.5%, respectively) but significant correlation with geographical distance, but no significant residual variation by song type. Estimates of the strength of selection that would be needed to maintain the observed geographical pattern in vocal differentiation if songs were genetically based are unreasonably high, further discrediting the hypothesis of a genetic origin of vocal variation. These data support a fourth, phylogenetically independent origin of avian vocal learning in Procnias. Geographical variations in P. tricarunculata vocal behaviour are likely culturally evolved dialects.     

Song Learning,Dialects, and Dispersal in the Bewick's Wren

Junge Thryomanes bewickii wurden im William L. Finley National Wildlife Refuge by Corvallis, Oregon, USA, untersucht. Sie werden nach etwa 35 Tagen von ihren Eltern unabhängig. Elf ♂♂ waren auf eine durchschnittliche Entfernung von 1,2 km verstreut (im Bereich von 0,1 bis 3,2 km). Vier ♂♂ (60, 80, 110 und 135 Tage alt) äußerten Jugendgesang (subsong) in Revieren, die sie lebenslang besetzt hielten. 60 Tage ist höchstwahrscheinlich das durchschnittliche Alter für Reviergründung und Beginn des Jugendgesangs. Das durchschnittliche Lied-Repertoire von 31 ausgewachsenen ♂♂ bestand aus 16 Liedtypen. Jeder Liedtyp bestand aus einer stabilen und mehrmals wiederholten Sequenz, die 2—5 melodische Themen hat (Anhäufungen von Noten oder Trillern). Der Jugendgesang des 60 Tage alten ♂ enthielt etwa 95 % der Themen des Repertoires eines Erwachsenen; bei einem zweiten Vogel waren alle Typen von Themen und Sequenzen im Alter von 115 Tagen vollständig ausgebildet. Ein Thema oder höchstens ein ganzer Liedtyp, der sich bei einem jungen ♂ entwickelt, muß — wie Ähnlichkeitsvergleiche zeigen — auf Erfahrungen beruhen, die das Tier vor Gründung seines Reviers gemacht hat. Die meisten Liedtypen im Repertoire sind jedoch vergleichbar mit den Liedern der ♂♂, die unmittelbare Nachbarn des neu gegründeten Reviers sind. Folglich ist die Bereitschaft zum Lernen von Themen und Sequenzen am größten, einige Zeit nachdem sie von ihren Eltern unabhängig werden (35 Tage), jedoch vor dem Beginn des Jugendgesangs (60 Tage). Während der Gesangs-Entwicklung lernen junge ♂♂ die Lieder Erwachsener, mit denen sie häufigen und engen Kontakt haben. Da die Reviere, die während der Entwicklung des Liedes gegründet wurden, dauerhaft sind und während des übrigen Jahres verteidigt werden, sind die Repertoires der Nachbar-♂♂ beinahe identisch. Einige Junge überqueren geringe Populations-Barrieren, die dann den akustischen Kontakt mit ♂♂ der anderen Seite verringern. Lernen neuer Lieder kommt deshalb beschränkt vor. Die Variationen kommen zustande durch mangelhaftes Nachahmen eines Liedes, vielleicht auch durch Improvisation oder “Drift”. Darum fehlen viele Lieder, die an einer Stelle häufig sind, anderswo, auch ganz in der Nähe, vollkommen.     

Song Types and their Use: Developmental Flexibility of the Male Blue-winged Warbler

How does an animal know the appropriate context in which to use its different vocalizations? I studied this problem with a songbird, the blue-winged warbler (Vermivora pinus). Mated males in nature tend to sing one song form (II) at dawn, under low light levels, and at a median rate of 15 songs/min. Their other song (I, the more familiar bee-buzz) is used later in the day, under higher light levels, and at a median rate of 6 songs/min. In the laboratory I tutored different groups of hand-reared males under normal circumstances (group 1: song II early in the morning, under low light, at a rapid rate; song I later, under high light, at a slow rate), under reversed circumstances (group 2: song I early, low light, rapid rate; etc.), and with no contextual cues (group 3: songs I and II both early and late, under both light levels, and at an intermediate rate). Few males developed entirely normal blue-wing song, but males of group 2 clearly reversed the use of song forms and components. The relationship between signal form and function in the songs of this warbler appears flexible and to some extent learned by the males.