Comparative collicular tonotopy in two bat species adapted to movement detection,Hipposideros speoris andMegaderma lyra

Summary The tonotopic organization of the inferior colliculus (IC) in two echolocating bats,Hipposideros speoris andMegaderma lyra, was studied by multiunit recordings.InHipposideros speoris frequencies below the range of the echolocation signals (i.e. below 120 kHz) are compressed into a dorsolateral cap about 400–600 m thick. Within this region, neuronal sheets of about 4–5 m thickness represent a 1 kHz-band.In contrast, the frequencies of the echolocation signals (120–140 kHz) are overrepresented and occupy the central and ventral parts of the IC (Fig. 3). In this region, neuronal sheets of about 80 m thickness represent a 1 kHz-band. The largest 1 kHz-slabs (400–600 m) represent frequencies of the pure tone components of the echolocation signals (130–140 kHz).The frequency of the pure tone echolocation component is specific for any given individual and always part of the overrepresented frequency range but did not necessarily coincide with the BF of the thickest isofrequency slab. Thus hipposiderid bats have an auditory fovea (Fig. 10).In the IC ofMegaderma lyra the complete range of audible frequencies, from a few kHz to 110 kHz, is represented in fairly equal proportions (Fig. 7). On the average, a neuronal sheet of 30 m thickness is dedicated to a 1 kHz-band, however, frequencies below 20 kHz, i.e. below the range of the echolocation signals, are overrepresented.Audiograms based on thresholds determined from multiunit recordings demonstrate the specific sensitivities of the two bat species. InHipposideros speoris the audiogram shows two sensitivity peaks, one in the nonecholocating frequency range (10–60 kHz) and one within the auditory fovea for echolocation (130–140 kHz).Megaderma lyra has extreme sensitivity between 15–20 kHz, with thresholds as low as –24 dB SPL, and a second sensitivity peak at 50 kHz (Fig. 8).InMegaderma lyra, as in common laboratory mammals, Q_10dB-values of single units do not exceed 30, whereas inHipposideros speoris units with BFs within the auditory fovea reach Q_10dB-values of up to 130.InMegaderma lyra, many single units and multiunit clusters with BFs below 30 kHz show upper thresholds of 40–50 dB SPL and respond most vigorously to sound intensities below 30 dB SPL (Fig. 9). Many of these units respond preferentially or exclusively to noise. These features are interpreted as adaptations to detection of prey-generated noises.The two different tonotopic arrangements (compare Figs. 3 and 7) in the ICs of the two species are correlated with their different foraging behaviours. It is suggested that pure tone echolocation and auditory foveae are primarily adaptations to echo clutter rejection for species foraging on the wing close to vegetation.Abbreviations BF Best frequency - CF constant frequency - FM frequency modulated - IC inferior colliculus - HS Hipposideros speoris     

Cephalodiate Arten der GattungLecidea sensu lato (Ascomycetes lichenisati)

(1) The ability to produce cephalodia is usually a genus-specific character in lichens. (2)Lecidea shushanii Thoms., is a member of the genusTephromela, closely related toT. aglaea. It is not clear, whether or not the cephalodia of this taxon are true cephalodia or colonies of epiphytic cyanobacteria and whether or notLecidea shushanii is an independent species. (3)Lecidea dovrensis Nyl., is, in contrast to the traditional concept, not conspecific withLecidea alpestris Sommerf., but an earlier name forLecidea pallida Th. Fr. (4)Lecidea dovrensis is described in some detail. Chemically the species is characterized by the presence of isousnic acid (previously unknown in lecideoid lichens). It is restricted to areas north of the 60th parallel with an oceanic climate. (5) In connection with the attempt to clarify the taxonomic relationships ofLecidea dovrensis, figures of ascus apical structures of the following species are given (marked by an asterisk are genera where we found discrepancies with published data):Austrolecia antarctica, Catillaria chalybeia, Lecidea alpestris, L. caesioatra, L. limosa, Lecidoma demissum, Koerberiella wimmeriana, Micarea assimilata, M. crassipes, M. melaenida, M. prasina, Pilophorus robustus, Placodiella olivacea, Placolecis opaca, Porpidia trullisata, Protoblastenia rupestris, Psilolechia lucida, Psorula rufonigra, Squamarina gypsacea, Xanthopsorella texana. (6) Among crustaceous lichens we find no groups related toLecidea dovrensis. We supportTimal's concept of including this species in the genusPilophorus. Pilophorus, as well asLecidea dovrensis is characterized by the same ascus type, by a similar structure of thallus, cephalodia, paraphyses, and ascocarp (although there is no pseudopodetium developed inLecidea dovrensis), and the presence of isousnic acid. In addition, both taxa are restricted to cool oceanic climates and non-calciferous substrates. The following combination is proposed:Pilophorus dovrensis (Nyl.)Timdal, Hertel & Rambold, comb. nova. (7) The species of theLecidea alpestris-group form an independent genus, probably near toAustrolecia Hertel.

Frau Prof. Dr.Elisabeth Tschermak-Woess zu ihrem 70. Geburtstag gewidmet.     

Gill surface area of water-breathing freshwater fish

Summary To provide a hitherto lacking review which focuses on gill surface area of freshwater fish, we collected and analysed morphometric data from the literature. The scaling exponent of gill area ranges from 0.36 to 1.13, with a mean value of 0.76. The absolute values for the largest gill areas are about 5 times as high as those of the smallest. This range resembles that of marine fish, if specially adapted steady swimmers, such as tunnies and some sharks, are excluded. Generally it appears that the gill areas of freshwater fish are smaller than those of comparable marine species. To establish whether a relationship exists between gill area and swimming activity or oxygen content of water, the activity of each species and the oxygen content of its habitat were estimated and checked against the gill area. ANOVA revealed that activity explains the presence of the smallest gill areas only, while oxygen content does not correlate with gill area at all. The morphometric variables determining gill area (total length of filaments, average lamellar density, average lamellar area) are highly correlated; total gill area correlates mainly with lamellar density and to a lesser degree with filament length; lamellar area varies independently. Different populations of the same species exhibit striking differences with respect to gill areas, total length of filaments, average lamellar density and average lamellar area. These differences point to a substantial morphological plasticity of the gill system.     

The Larval Eye of Nannochoristid Scorpionflies (Insecta,Mecoptera)

Abstract The stemmata of last–instar Nannochoristalarvae are compound eyes composed of 10 or more ommatidia. Each ommatidium has four Semper cells, four distal and four proximal retinula cells which form a cruciform and layered rhabdom. The ommatidia are separated by epidermal cells (possibly rudimentary pigment cells). Corneal lenses are lacking. At the posterior edge, aberrant stemma units may be present which lack a dioptric apparatus and have a star–shaped rhabdom composed of at least six retinula cells. The stemmata of Nannochoristaappear to be derived from stemmata of the Panorpa-type (Mecoptera-Panorpidae). Differences between the stemmata of Nannochoristaand Panorpacan be explained as adaptations to aquatic life (flat cornea) or as regression. A compound larval eye is ascribed to the ground plan of the Mecoptera sensu latoand is considered a genuine plesiomorphy. The identical basic number (seven) of stemmata in the Neuropteroid/Coleoptera assemblage, Amphiesmenoptera and some Mecoptera (Bittacidae, Boreidae) is attributed to parallel evolution.     

Is there hybridization between diploid and tetraploid Euphrasia in a secondary contact zone?

Premise

Strong postzygotic reproductive isolating barriers are usually expected to limit the extent of natural hybridization between species with contrasting ploidy. However, genomic sequencing has revealed previously overlooked examples of natural cross-ploidy hybridization in some flowering plant genera, suggesting that the phenomenon may be more common than once thought. We investigated potential cross-ploidy hybridization in British eyebrights (Euphrasia, Orobanchaceae), a group from which 13 putative cross-ploidy hybrid combinations have been reported based on morphology.

Methods

We analyzed a contact zone between diploid Euphrasia rostkoviana and tetraploid E. arctica in Wales. We sequenced part of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) of nuclear ribosomal DNA and used genotyping by sequencing (GBS) to look for evidence of cross-ploidy hybridization and introgression.

Results

Common variant sites in the ITS region were fixed between diploids and tetraploids, indicating a strong barrier to hybridization. Clustering analyses of 356 single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) generated using GBS clearly separated samples by ploidy and revealed strong genetic structure (F_ST = 0.44). However, the F_ST distribution across all SNPs was bimodal, indicating potential differential selection on loci between diploids and tetraploids. Demographic inference suggested potential gene flow, limited to around one or fewer migrants per generation.

Conclusions

Our results suggest that recent cross-ploidy hybridization is rare or absent in a site of secondary contact in Euphrasia. While a strong ploidy barrier prevents hybridization over ecological timescales, such hybrids may form in stable populations over evolutionary timescales, potentially allowing cross-ploidy introgression to take place.     

Progress in fold recognition

The prediction experiment reveals that fold recognition has become a powerful tool in structural biology. We applied our fold recognition technique to 13 target sequences. In two cases, replication terminating protein and prosequence of subtilisin, the predicted structures are very similar to the experimentally determined folds. For the first time, in a public blind test, the unknown structures of proteins have been predicted ahead of experiment to an accuracy approaching molecular detail. In two other cases the approximate folds have been predicted correctly. According to the assessors there were 12 recognizable folds among the target proteins. In our postprediction analysis we find that in 7 cases our fold recognition technique is successful. In several of the remaining cases the predicted folds have interesting features in common with the experimental results. We present our procedure, discuss the results, and comment on several fundamental and technical problems encountered in fold recognition. © 1995 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

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