The unique transmembrane hairpin of flavivirus fusion protein E is essential for membrane fusion

The fusion of enveloped viruses with cellular membranes is mediated by proteins that are anchored in the lipid bilayer of the virus and capable of triggered conformational changes necessary for driving fusion. The flavivirus envelope protein E is the only known viral fusion protein with a double membrane anchor, consisting of two antiparallel transmembrane helices (TM1 and TM2). TM1 functions as a stop-transfer sequence and TM2 as an internal signal sequence for the first nonstructural protein during polyprotein processing. The possible role of this peculiar C-terminal helical hairpin in membrane fusion has not been investigated so far. We addressed this question by studying TM mutants of tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) recombinant subviral particles (RSPs), an established model system for flavivirus membrane fusion. The engineered mutations included the deletion of TM2, the replacement of both TM domains (TMDs) by those of the related Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), and the use of chimeric TBEV-JEV membrane anchors. Using these mutant RSPs, we provide evidence that TM2 is not just a remnant of polyprotein processing but, together with TM1, plays an active role in fusion. None of the TM mutations, including the deletion of TM2, affected early steps of the fusion process, but TM interactions apparently contribute to the stability of the postfusion E trimer and the completion of the merger of the membranes. Our data provide evidence for both intratrimer and intertrimer interactions mediated by the TMDs of E and thus extend the existing models of flavivirus membrane fusion.     

A trans-Complementing Recombination Trap Demonstrates a Low Propensity of Flaviviruses for Intermolecular Recombination

Intermolecular recombination between the genomes of closely related RNA viruses can result in the emergence of novel strains with altered pathogenic potential and antigenicity. Although recombination between flavivirus genomes has never been demonstrated experimentally, the potential risk of generating undesirable recombinants has nevertheless been a matter of concern and controversy with respect to the development of live flavivirus vaccines. As an experimental system for investigating the ability of flavivirus genomes to recombine, we developed a “recombination trap,” which was designed to allow the products of rare recombination events to be selected and amplified. To do this, we established reciprocal packaging systems consisting of pairs of self-replicating subgenomic RNAs (replicons) derived from tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV), West Nile virus (WNV), and Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) that could complement each other in trans and thus be propagated together in cell culture over multiple passages. Any infectious viruses with intact, full-length genomes that were generated by recombination of the two replicons would be selected and enriched by end point dilution passage, as was demonstrated in a spiking experiment in which a small amount of wild-type virus was mixed with the packaged replicons. Using the recombination trap and the JEV system, we detected two aberrant recombination events, both of which yielded unnatural genomes containing duplications. Infectious clones of both of these genomes yielded viruses with impaired growth properties. Despite the fact that the replicon pairs shared approximately 600 nucleotides of identical sequence where a precise homologous crossover event would have yielded a wild-type genome, this was not observed in any of these systems, and the TBEV and WNV systems did not yield any viable recombinant genomes at all. Our results show that intergenomic recombination can occur in the structural region of flaviviruses but that its frequency appears to be very low and that therefore it probably does not represent a major risk in the use of live, attenuated flavivirus vaccines.RNA viruses are able to undergo rapid genetic changes in order to adapt to new hosts or environments. Although much of this flexibility is due to the error-prone nature of the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase, which generates an array of different point mutations within the viral population (23), recombination is also a common and important mechanism for generating viral diversity (18, 31, 42, 58). Recombination occurs when the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase switches templates during replication, an event that is favored when both templates share identical or very similar sequences. Three types of RNA recombination have been identified: homologous recombination occurs at sites with exact sequence matches; aberrant homologous recombination requires sequence homology, but crossover occurs either upstream or downstream of the site of homology, resulting in a duplication or deletion; and nonhomologous (or illegitimate) recombination is independent of sequence homology (31, 42).When the same cell is infected by viruses of two different strains, or even different species, recombination between their genomic RNAs can potentially lead to the emergence of new pathogens. A case in point is the emergence of Western equine encephalitis virus, a member of the genus Alphavirus, family Togaviridae, which arose by homologous recombination between Eastern equine encephalitis virus and Sindbis virus (14).Some mammalian RNA viruses can recombine at a frequency that is detectable in experimental settings (1, 2, 55), and phylogenetic analysis of partial or complete genome sequences suggests that RNA recombination is a widespread phenomenon. Naturally occurring recombinant viruses have been identified in almost every family of positive-stranded RNA viruses (31, 58).Flaviviruses are members of the genus Flavivirus, family Flaviviridae, a family that also includes the genera Pestivirus and Hepacivirus. Several of the flaviviruses are important human pathogens, such as Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), West Nile virus (WNV), the dengue viruses, yellow fever virus, and tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV).Although there has never been a report of a pathogenic flavivirus strain arising due to recombination involving attenuated vaccine strains (39), the urgent necessity to develop tetravalent vaccines containing all four serotypes of dengue virus—two such vaccines are currently undergoing clinical testing (45)—has recently brought the recombination issue to the forefront of discussion among researchers, regulators, and vaccine producers (39). It has been suggested that recombination, either between the strains present in a multivalent vaccine or between an attenuated vaccine strain and a wild-type strain, could lead to the emergence of new viruses with unpredictable properties (49).So far, recombination between flavivirus genomes has not been demonstrated directly in the laboratory. However, phylogenetic analysis of partial genome sequences available in the GenBank database has suggested that homologous recombination may have occurred between closely related strains of dengue virus (20, 52, 54, 59). An experimental approach for assessing the ability of flavivirus genomes to recombine is therefore urgently needed.Flavivirus virions are composed of a single-stranded, positive-sense RNA genome that, together with the capsid protein C, forms the viral nucleocapsid. The nucleocapsid is covered by a lipid envelope containing the surface glycoproteins prM and E. These glycoproteins drive budding at the membrane of the endoplasmic reticulum during the assembly stage and mediate entry of the virus into host cells (41). Replicons, defined as self-replicating, noninfectious RNA molecules, can be generated by deleting parts or all of the region coding for the structural proteins C, prM, and E from the viral genome but maintaining all seven of the nonstructural proteins and the flanking noncoding sequences, which are required in cis for RNA replication (25). By providing the missing structural protein components in trans, replicons can be packaged into virus-like particles that are capable of a single round of infection (10, 15, 24, 47).Typically, researchers developing novel replicating vaccines, especially ones that involve multiple components, make an effort to come up with strategies to prevent recombination, for example by “wobbling” codons, i.e., replacing codons in homologous regions with synonymous ones encoding the same amino acid but consisting of a different nucleotide triplet (50, 57). In this study, in order to assess the propensity of flavivirus genomes to recombine, we took an opposite approach, establishing a “recombination trap” that favors the selection and sensitive detection of recombination products. This system takes advantage of the ability of replicon pairs containing deletions in their structural protein genes to complement each other in trans and thus be propagated together in cell culture, and by passage at limiting dilutions, it allows infectious RNA genomes arising by recombination between the two replicons to be preferentially selected.Using the recombination trap, we have now obtained the first direct evidence of recombination between flavivirus genomes in the laboratory. Aberrant homologous recombination was observed twice with JEV replicons, resulting in viruses with unnatural gene arrangements and reduced growth properties compared to those of wild-type JEV. No infectious recombinants of any kind were obtained when TBEV or WNV replicons were used. Interestingly, we never detected a fully infectious wild-type genome arising by homologous recombination in any of these systems. The results of this study show that the propensity of flavivirus genomes to recombine in the region coding for the structural proteins appears to be quite low, suggesting that recombination does not represent a major risk in the use of live, attenuated flavivirus vaccines.     

Hydrolysis of allylic phosphates by enzymes from the flavedo of Citrus sinensis

Acid phosphatase activities have been partially purified from an aqueous extract of an acetone powder from orange flavedo. The use of a gel filtration step with an ionic gradient allowed a dissociation of proteins from pigments, thus facilitating purification and stabilization of the enzymes. The enzymes do not require metals for full activity, and they hydrolysed a wide spectrum of phosphorylated substrates. C₁₀–C₂₀ allylic pyrophosphates and monophosphates were hydrolysed sequentially by these ‘prenylphosphatases’. The final product was the corresponding unrearranged prenyl alcohol. This demonstrated the absence of E-Z isomerization and suggested an OP bond cleavage. Prenylphosphatases exhibited a certain degree of chain length specificity. Although the E or Z conformation of the C-2 double bond was not important, its presence was required for full activity. Excess prenylpyrophosphate inhibited the rate of formation of alcohols, most likely through the inhibition of phosphomonoesterase activity. These prenylphosphatases generated the alcoholic components of essential oils from the corresponding pyrophosphates and removed them from the chain lengthening process.     

Limited proteolysis of yeast phosphofructokinase by subtilisin. Alterations in enzyme activity, subunit composition, and hydrodynamic properties.

Yeast phosphofructokinase having a molecular weight of 750000--800000 (20 S) has been subjected to limited proteolysis by subtilisin and yeast proteases. Two steps of proteolytic degradation could be distinguished: in the first step, which is accompanied by an increase in molecular activity, the subunits alpha and beta (Mr 120000) are converted to alpha' and beta' (Mr approximately 900000), and in the second step, accompanied by a decrease in enzyme activity, alpha' is converted to alpha' (Mr 80000) and two further fragments having Mr 45000 and 35000 become detectable. In the course of the conversion the sedimentation value of the undissociated enzyme drops from 20 S to about 17 S. The two substrates fructose 6-phosphate and ATP exhibit characteristic protective effects on enzyme activity and on subunit degradation. Whereas the first step is not strongly influenced by the substrates, fructose, 6-phosphate inhibits significantly the degradation of alpha' and beta', whereas ATP prevents only degradation of beta'. When in presence of ATP alpha' is degraded to alpha', the quaternary structure of the 17-S enzyme is no longer stable and a dissociation of the molecule occurs to a 12-S form which is enzymically active and ATP-sensitive and in which the ratio of alpha' to beta' is one-to-one.     

Determination of kallikreinogen (KKN) in human plasma by activation with Hageman factor fragment (F XIIf)

On the basis of activation of KKN by F XIIf an assay for determination of KKN levels was developed. The esterolytic activity of the activation product PK was measured with BAEE as substrate. After maximal activation of normal human plasma the esterolytic activity amounts to 16.82 +/- 2.03 mukat/l plasma (n = 25). The within run precision and day to day precision characterized by the variation coefficient were 2.5 and 4.9, respectively.