Effect of the cytoskeleton dynamic condition on the neuronal plasticity]

Infringement of the Lymnaea stagnalis cytoskeleton condition affected preservation and repeated development of plastic responses. Stabilising of the microtubules led to a dependence of the development and preservation dynamics of the plastic responses. Stabilising of the microfilaments transformed short-term plastic responses into long-term ones. The findings suggest a key role of reorganisation of the cytoskeleton in neuronal plasticity.     

Statistical properties of bootstrap estimation of phylogenetic variability from nucleotide sequences. I. Four taxa with a molecular clock.

The statistical properties of sample estimation and bootstrap estimation of phylogenetic variability from a sample of nucleotide sequences are studied by using model trees of three taxa with an outgroup and by assuming a constant rate of nucleotide substitution. The maximum-parsimony method of tree reconstruction is used. An analytic formula is derived for estimating the sequence length that is required if P, the probability of obtaining the true tree from the sampled sequences, is to be equal to or higher than a given value. Bootstrap estimation is formulated as a two-step sampling procedure: (1) sampling of sequences from the evolutionary process and (2) resampling of the original sequence sample. The probability that a bootstrap resampling of an original sequence sample will support the true tree is found to depend on the model tree, the sequence length, and the probability that a randomly chosen nucleotide site is an informative site. When a trifurcating tree is used as the model tree, the probability that one of the three bifurcating trees will appear in > or = 95% of the bootstrap replicates is < 5%, even if the number of bootstrap replicates is only 50; therefore, the probability of accepting an erroneous tree as the true tree is < 5% if that tree appears in > or = 95% of the bootstrap replicates and if more than 50 bootstrap replications are conducted. However, if a particular bifurcating tree is observed in, say, < 75% of the bootstrap replicates, then it cannot be claimed to be better than the trifurcating tree even if > or = 1,000 bootstrap replications are conducted. When a bifurcating tree is used as the model tree, the bootstrap approach tends to overestimate P when the sequences are very short, but it tends to underestimate that probability when the sequences are long. Moreover, simulation results show that, if a tree is accepted as the true tree only if it has appeared in > or = 95% of the bootstrap replicates, then the probability of failing to accept any bifurcating tree can be as large as 58% even when P = 95%, i.e., even when 95% of the samples from the evolutionary process will support the true tree. Thus, if the rate-constancy assumption holds, bootstrapping is a conservative approach for estimating the reliability of an inferred phylogeny for four taxa.     

Estimation of evolutionary distances between nucleotide sequences

A formal mathematical analysis of the substitution process in nucleotide sequence evolution was done in terms of the Markov process. By using matrix algebra theory, the theoretical foundation of Barry and Hartigan's (Stat. Sci. 2:191–210, 1987) and Lanave et al.'s (J. Mol. Evol. 20:86–93, 1984) methods was provided. Extensive computer simulation was used to compare the accuracy and effectiveness of various methods for estimating the evolutionary distance between two nucleotide sequences. It was shown that the multiparameter methods of Lanave et al.'s (J. Mol. Evol. 20:86–93, 1984), Gojobori et al.'s (J. Mol. Evol. 18:414–422, 1982), and Barry and Hartigan's (Stat. Sci. 2:191–210, 1987) are preferable to others for the purpose of phylogenetic analysis when the sequences are long. However, when sequences are short and the evolutionary distance is large, Tajima and Nei's (Mol. Biol. Evol. 1:269–285, 1984) method is superior to others.     

The phylogenetic position of taxaceae based on 18S rRNA sequences

The evolutionary position of the yew family, Taxaceae, has been very controversial. Some plant taxonomists strongly advocate excluding Taxaceae from the conifer order and raising its taxonomic status to a new order or even class because of its absence of seed cones, contrary to the case in the majority of conifers. However, other authors believe that the Taxaceae are not fundamentally different from the rest of the conifers except in that they possess the most reduced solitary-ovule cones. To resolve the controversy, we have sequenced the 18S rRNA genes from representative gymnosperms: Taxus mairei (Taxaceae), Podocarpus nakaii (Podocarpaceae), Pinus luchuensis (Pinaceae), and Ginkgo biloba (Ginkgoales). Our phylogenetic analysis of the new sequence data with the published 18S rRNA sequence of Zamia pumila (a cycad) as an outgroup strongly indicates that Taxus, Pinus, and Podocarpus form a monophyletic group with the exclusion of Ginkgo and that Taxus is more closely related to Pinus than to Podocarpus. Therefore, Taxaceae should be classified as a family of Coniferales. Our finding that Taxaceae, Pinaceae, and Podocarpaceae form a clade contradicts both the view that the uniovulate seed of Taxaceae is a primitive character and the view that the Taxaceae are descendants of the Podocarpaceae. Rather, the uniovulate seed of Taxaceae and that of some species of Podocarpus appear to have different origins, probably all reduced from multiovulate cones. Correspondence to: W.-H. Li     

Genetic variation in Przewalski's horses, with special focus on the last wild caught mare, 231 Orlitza III

In our continuing efforts to document genetic diversity in Przewalski's horses and relatedness with domestic horses, we report genetic variation at 22 loci of blood group and protein polymorphisms and 29 loci of DNA (microsatellite) polymorphisms. The loci have been assigned by linkage or synteny mapping to 20 autosomes and the X chromosome of the domestic horse (plus four loci unassigned to a chromosome). With cumulative data from tests of 568 Przewalski's horses using blood, hair or tooth samples, no species-defining markers were identified, however a few markers were present in the wild species but not in domestic horses. Inheritance patterns and linkage relationships reported in domestic horses appeared to be conserved in Przewalski's horses. A derived type for the last wild caught mare 231 Orlitza III provided evidence for markers apparently not found in (or not currently available by descent from) the other species founders that were captured at the end of the nineteenth century. This information has been critical to the development of parentage analyses in the studbook population of Przewalski's horses at Askania Nova, at one time the largest herd of captive animals and the source of stock for reintroduction efforts. Some horses in the study showed genetic incompatibilities with their sire or dam, contradicting published studbook information. In many cases alternative parentage could be assigned from living animals. To assist in identification of correct parentage, DNA marker types for deceased horses were established from archived materials (teeth) or derived from offspring. Genetic markers were present in pedigreed animals whose origin could not be accounted for from founders. Genetic distance analysis of erythrocyte protein, electrophoretic and microsatellite markers in Przewlaski's horses and ten breeds of domestic horse place the Przewalski's horse as an outgroup to domestic horses, introgression events from domestic horses not withstanding.     

Genetic diversity of the genus Malus and implications for linkage mapping with SNPs

Knowledge about the sequence-based genetic diversity of a crop species is important in order to develop highly informative genotyping assays, which will eventually positively impact breeding practice. Diversity data were obtained from two pools of 185 and 75 accessions each, representing most of the species belonging to the genus Malus, by re-sequencing 27 gene-specific amplicons and by screening 237 Malus × domestica SNPs using the multiplex genotyping technology SNPlex™. Nucleotide diversity and insertion/deletion rates in M. × domestica were estimated as π = 0.0037 and 1/333 bp, respectively. The SNP frequency was estimated as 0.0194 (1 SNP/52 bp) while within a single apple cultivar an average of one SNP in every 455 bp was found. We also investigated transferability (T _SNP) of the heterozygous state of SNPs across the species M. × domestica and the genus Malus. Raw re-sequencing showed that 12–15% of M. × domestica SNPs are transferable to a second M. × domestica cultivar, however T _SNP rose to ∼41% with SNPs selected for high minor allele frequency. T _SNP of chosen SNPs averaged ∼27% in the two M. × domestica-related species, Malus sieversii and Malus sylvestris, but was much lower in more distantly related species. On the basis of T _SNP, simulations, and empirical results, we calculated that a close-design, multiplexed genotyping array with at least 2,000 SNPs is required for building a highly saturated linkage maps within any M. × domestica cross. The same array would gradually lose informativeness in increasingly phylogenetically distant Malus species.     

A Model of Genome Size Dynamics During Speciation

A model developed for the evolving size of the repetitive part of the eukaryote genome during speciation was subjected to analytical and computer treatment. The basic assumption of the model was that two classes of repetitive DNA contribute mainly to macroevolutionary changes in genome size: arrays of tandem repeats (ATR) changing through unequal crossover and mobile genetic elements (MGE) changing presumably through an integration mechanism of the Tn- and Is-kind operating in bacteria. Within the framework of this model, the macroevolution of the MGE size is formally equivalent to that of the ATR in the particular case when shifts of chromatids have only one repeat out of register. This allowed us to consider genome size as a large set of various ATRs. The results obtained are as follows. If the duplication and deletion of repeats have unequal fixation probabilities during each speciation act, the predicted species distributions of genome size significantly deviate from the real ones; if they have equal fixation probabilities, there is a conformance between calculated and real distributions. In the latter case, the model reproduces the salient features of real distributions upon acceptance of 1) upper selective boundary nonspecifically limiting increase in genome size within the evolving taxonomic group and 2) non-neutrality of variability in genome size with respect to speciation.     

Traumatic shock causes elevation of the serotonin 5-HT2B receptor mRNA level in rat aorta

Previously we have shown that at traumatic shock in rats the force of contraction of isolated aorta in response to angiotensin II, vasopressin, endothelin 1, or norepinephrine is decreased. On the contrary, vasoconstriction caused by serotonin is increased. A possible reason of the alterations of neuroendocrine regulation of vascular tone in shock may be a change in the expression of the receptors of these agonists in blood vessels. In the present study, using real-time PCR, we demonstrated that a day after injury the contents of mRNA encoding receptors V1A for vasopressin, ETA for endothelin 1, and AT1 for angiotensin II are not changed in aorta. There was a slight increase of the serotonin 5-HT2A receptor mRNA (36 ± 16%; p = 0.41). The level of the 5-HT2B receptor mRNA in aorta, initially low (2% of the content of the mRNA of receptors 5-HT2A), after the injury increased 15.8 ± 0.3 times (p < 0.01). However, at traumatic shock there was no contraction of aorta in response to 5-HT2B receptor agonist BW723C86, while vasodilation of the isolated aorta preconstricted with norepinephrine in response to BW723C86 was similar to that of the vessel isolated from control rats. The data obtained suggest that the observed 5-HT2B receptor overexpression is not related to the increased serotonin-induced vasoconstriction and might cause other vascular pathological changes at traumatic shock.     

The Mammalian 2′-5′ Oligoadenylate Synthetase Gene Family: Evidence for Concerted Evolution of Paralogous Oas1 Genes in Rodentia and Artiodactyla

Multiple 2′-5′ oligoadenylate (2-5A) synthetases are important components of innate immunity in mammals. Gene families encoding these proteins have previously been studied mainly in humans and mice. To reconstruct the evolution of this gene family in mammals, a search for additional 2-5A synthetase genes was performed in rat, cattle, pig, and dog. Twelve 2′-5′ oligoadenylate synthetase (Oas) genes were identified in the rat genome, including eight Oas1 genes, two Oas1 pseudogenes, single copies of Oas2 and Oas3, and two Oas-like genes, Oasl1 and Oasl2. Four OAS genes were detected in the pig genome and five OAS genes were found in both the cattle and dog genomes. An OAS3 gene was not found in either the cattle or the pig genome. While two tandemly duplicated OAS-like (OASL) genes were identified in the dog genome, only a single OASL orthologue was found in both the cattle and the pig genomes. The bovine and porcine OASL genes contain premature stop codons and encode truncated proteins, which lack the typical C-terminal double ubiquitin domains. The cDNA sequences of the rat, cattle, pig, and dog OAS genes were amplified, sequenced and compared with each other and with those in the human, mouse, horse, and chicken genomes. Evidence of concerted evolution of paralogous 2′-5′ oligoadenylate synthetase 1 genes was obtained in rodents (Rodentia) and even-toed ungulates (Artiodactyla). Calculations using the nonparametric Kolmogorov-Smirnov test suggested that the homogenization of paralogous OAS1 sequences was due to gene conversion rather than stabilizing selection. Electronic Supplementary Material Electronic Supplementary material is available for this article at and accessible for authorised users. Reviewing Editor: Dr. Martin Kreitman