Male cleaner wrasses adjust punishment of female partners according to the stakes

Punishment is an important deterrent against cheating in cooperative interactions. In humans, the severity of cheating affects the strength of punishment which, in turn, affects the punished individual's future behaviour. Here, we show such flexible adjustments for the first time in a non-human species, the cleaner wrasse (Labroides dimidiatus), where males are known to punish female partners. We exposed pairs of cleaners to a model client offering two types of food, preferred 'prawn' items and less-preferred 'flake' items. Analogous to interactions with real clients, eating a preferred prawn item ('cheating') led to model client removal. We varied the extent to which female cheating caused pay-off reduction to the male and measured the corresponding severity of male punishment. Males punished females more severely when females cheated during interactions with high value, rather than low value, model clients; and when females were similar in size to the male. This pattern may arise because, in this protogynous hermaphrodite, cheating by similar-sized females may reduce size differences to the extent that females change sex and become reproductive competitors. In response to more severe punishment from males, females behaved more cooperatively. Our results show that punishment can be adjusted to circumstances and that such subtleties can have an important bearing on the outcome of cooperative interactions.     

A decrease in the abundance and strategic sophistication of cleaner fish after environmental perturbations

Coral reef ecosystems are declining worldwide and under foreseeable threat due to climate change, resulting in significant changes in reef communities. It is unknown, however, how such community changes impact interspecific interactions. Recent extreme weather events affecting the Great Barrier Reef, that is, consecutive cyclones and the 2016 El Niño event, allowed us to explore potential consequences in the mutualistic interactions involving cleaner fish Labroides dimidiatus (hereafter “cleaner”). After the perturbations, cleaner densities were reduced by 80%, disproportionally compared to the variety of reef fish clients from which cleaners remove ectoparasites. Consequently, shifts in supply and demand yielded an increase in the clients’ demand for cleaning. Therefore, clients became less selective toward cleaners, whereas cleaners were able to choose from a multitude of partners. In parallel, we found a significant decline in the ability of cleaners to manage their reputation and to learn to prioritize ephemeral food sources to maximize food intake in laboratory experiments. In other words, cleaners failed to display the previously documented strategic sophistication that made this species a prime example for fish intelligence. In conclusion, low population densities may cause various effects on individual behavior, and as a consequence, interspecific interactions. At the same time, our data suggest that a recovery of population densities would cause a recovery of previously described interaction patterns and cleaner strategic sophistication within the lifetime of individuals.     

Adenosine kinase inhibitors: polar 7-substitutent of pyridopyrimidine derivatives improving their locomotor selectivity

We have discovered that polar 7-substituents of pyridopyrimidine derivatives affect not only whole cell AK inhibitory potency, but also selectivity in causing locomotor side effects in vivo animal models. We have identified compound, 1o, which has potent whole cell AK inhibitory potency, analgesic activity and minimal reduction of locomotor activity.     

Structure-activity studies of a novel series of 5,6-fused heteroaromatic ureas as TRPV1 antagonists

Novel 5,6-fused heteroaromatic ureas were synthesized and evaluated for their activity as TRPV1 antagonists. It was found that 4-aminoindoles and indazoles are the preferential cores for the attachment of ureas. Bulky electron-withdrawing groups in the para-position of the aromatic ring of the urea substituents imparted the best in vitro potency at TRPV1. The most potent derivatives were assessed in in vivo inflammatory and neuropathic pain models. Compound 46, containing the indazole core and a 3,4-dichlorophenyl group appended to it via a urea linker, demonstrated in vivo analgesic activity upon oral administration. This derivative also showed selectivity versus other receptors in the CEREP screen and exhibited acceptable cardiovascular safety at levels exceeding the therapeutic dose.     

Macroalgae removal on coral reefs: realised ecosystem functions transcend biogeographic locations

Coral Reefs - Coral reef ecosystems are at the forefront of biodiversity loss and climate change-mediated transformations. This is expected to have profound consequences for the functioning of...     

5-(3-Bromophenyl)-7-(6-morpholin-4-ylpyridin-3-yl)pyrido[2,3-d]pyrimidin-4-ylamine: structure-activity relationships of 7-substituted heteroaryl analogs as non-nucleoside adenosine kinase inhibitors

4-Amino-5,7-disubstituted pyridopyrimidines are potent, non-nucleoside inhibitors of adenosine kinase (AK). We recently identified a potent, orally efficacious analog, 4 containing a 7-pyridylmorpholine substituted ring system as the key structural element of this template. In this report, we disclose the pharmacologic effects of five- and six-membered heterocyclic ring replacements for the pyridine ring in 4. These replacements were found to have interesting effects on in vivo efficacy and genotoxicity as well as in vitro potency. We discovered that the nitrogen in the heterocyclic ring at C(7) is important for the modulation of mutagenic side effects (Ames assay).     

On the Hunt: Searching for Poorly Defined Camouflaged Targets

As camouflaged targets share visual characteristics with the environment within which they are embedded, searchers rarely have access to a perfect visual template of such targets. Instead, they must rely on less specific representations to guide search. Although search for camouflaged and non-specified targets have both received attention in the literature, to date they have not been explored in a combined context. Here we introduce a new paradigm for characterizing behavior during search for camouflaged targets in natural scenes, while also exploring how the fidelity of the target template affects search processes. Search scenes were created from forest images, with targets a distortion (varied size) of that image at a random location. In Experiment 1 a preview of the target was provided; in Experiment 2 there was no preview. No differences were found between experiments on nearly all measures. Generally, reaction times and accuracy improved with familiarity on the task (more so for small targets). Analysis of eye movements indicated that performance benefits were related to improvements in both Search and Target Verification time. Combined, our data suggest that search for camouflaged targets can be improved over a short time-scale, even when targets are poorly defined.     

Pyridopyrimidine analogues as novel adenosine kinase inhibitors

A novel series of pyridopyrimidine analogues 9 was identified as potent adenosine kinase inhibitors based on the SAR and computational studies. Substitution of the C7 position of the pyridopyrimidino core with C2' substituted pyridino moiety increased the in vivo potency and enhanced oral bioavailability of these adenosine kinase inhibitors.     

Experimental inoculation of meadow voles (Microtus pennsylvanicus), house mice (Mus musculus), and Norway rats (Rattus norvegicus) with Mycobacterium bovis

Mycobacterium bovis has a wide host range that includes several wildlife species, and this can hamper attempts to eradicate bovine tuberculosis from livestock. The purpose of this study was to determine if common rodent species, namely meadow voles (Microtus pennsylvanicus), house mice (Mus musculus), and Norway rats (Rattus norvegicus), that inhabit the bovine tuberculosis endemic area of Michigan, can be experimentally infected with M. bovis. The objectives of the study were: 1) to determine if these rodent species can be infected, and if so, to document attendant pathologic processes/pathogenesis; 2) to detect any fecal shedding of M. bovis; and 3) to evaluate the relative susceptibility of the three species to M. bovis infection. For each species (n=36) there were two treatment (n=12/group) and one or two control groups depending on species (n=6-12/group); the maximum study duration was 60 days. The meadow vole treatments consisted of high dose inocula that were given by oral or intranasal routes, whereas the house mice and Norway rats were given only oral inocula at either a high or low dose. Of the three species, meadow voles were most susceptible to M. bovis infection. Upon intranasal inoculation, all 12 voles were infected as determined by gross and microscopic lesions and culture of M. bovis from tissue and feces. Seven of the 12 meadow voles inoculated orally were infected. House mice also were susceptible; M. bovis was isolated from 14 of 24 animals. Only one Norway rat in the high dose treatment group was positive by culture and this was the only animal from which minimal attendant lesions were observed. Results of this study indicate that meadow voles and house mice can be infected with M. bovis and might serve as spillover hosts. Concerted efforts should, therefore, be made to reduce or eliminate these rodents on premises where M. bovis-infected livestock are present.