Leakage from Seedling Roots, Inoculated with Phytophthora cinnamomi

A sequential study of electrolyte leakage from roots inoculated with Phytophthora cinnamomi demonstrated changes in leakage in response to infection. These changes may be characterised in terms of susceptibility and resistance. Field resistant species showed two types of response (i) rapid leakage 2—4 h after inoculation, such as in Eucalyptus calophylla, E. maculata and Gahnia radula, (ii) no significant increase in leakage with infection, for example in cereals and in juncus bufonius. Susceptible species, such as Xanthorrhoea australis, E. sieberi and E. marginata showed slow but continually increasing leakage after inoculation, and usually lost significantly more electrolyte than field resistant species. Both electrolyte leakage and susceptibility of two Eucalyptus species varied with root temperature. Roots of both the susceptible and field resistant Eucalyptus species grown at 14°C showed similar leakage patterns to those grown at 24°C although no lesions formed at 14°C. Both amount of leakage and lesion length increased at 28°C. E. marginata (susceptible) lost significantly greater quantities of electrolyte than E. calophylla at each temperature tested. Leakage from artificially wounded roots did not vary with either temperature or with host susceptibility. No significant changes in conductivity were recorded with saprophytic colonization of roots, or with incubation in either low molecular weight culture filtrate or β-glucan solutions. Vacuum infiltration with the culture filtrate or the β-glucan slightly increased initial electrolyte loss in comparison with that of the controls. The increased leakage from infected roots may be toxin mediated or due to enzymie degradation of host plasma membranes, and occurred within the region of the limited lesion in the case of field resistant species, compared with the larger zone of extending necrosis characteristic of susceptible species.     

Effect of imidacloprid tree treatments on the occurrence of Formosan subterranean termites,Coptotermes formosanus Shiraki (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae), in independent monitors

Periodic sampling of 87 independent monitors, initially active with the Formosan subterranean termite, Coptotermes formosanus Shiraki, was conducted. Monitors, located in eight sectors adjacent to seven buildings, were various distances (1-46 m) from 57 trees treated with 0.1% imidacloprid foam. Termites collected from six of the eight sectors showed latent mortality attributed to imidacloprid intoxication at all monitor-tree distances. Approximately 6 mo after treatment, termite populations had recovered in these sectors. Another sector showed termite population suppression for approximately 15 mo, followed by recovery. Imidacloprid tree treatments did not control C. formosanus populations in independent monitors adjacent to the treatments.     

A Survey of Phytotoxic Microbial and Plant Metabolites as Potential Natural Products for Pest Management

Phytotoxic microbial metabolites produced by certain phytopathogenic fungi and bacteria, and a group of phytotoxic plant metabolites including Amaryllidacea alkaloids and some derivatives of these compounds were evaluated for algicide, bactericide, insecticide, fungicide, and herbicide activities in order to discover natural compounds for potential use in the management and control of several important agricultural and household structural pests. Among the various compounds evaluated: i) ophiobolin A was found to be the most promising for potential use as a selective algicide; ii) ungeremine was discovered to be bactericidal against certain species of fish pathogenic bacteria; iii) cycasin caused significant mortality in termites; iv) cavoxin, ophiobolin A, and sphaeropsidin A were most active towards species of plant pathogenic fungi; and v) lycorine and some of its analogues (1‐O‐acetyllycorine and lycorine chlorohydrate) were highly phytotoxic in the herbicide bioassay. Our results further demonstrated that plants and microbes can provide a diverse and natural source of compounds with potential use as pesticides.     

Interspecific Interactions Between Coptotermes formosanus and Reticulitermes flavipes (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae) in Laboratory Bioassays

Experiments were conducted to examine competitive interactions between the Formosan subterranean termite, Coptotermes formosanus Shiraki (FST), and the eastern subterranean termite, Reticulitermes flavipes (Kollar) (EST), using groups of termites with different worker:soldier proportions. Experiments were conducted using three connected test chambers: an FST chamber, an unoccupied center chamber, and an EST chamber. When groups of FST were comprised of 20% soldiers versus 2% EST soldiers, only 8% of center chambers were occupied exclusively by EST. When groups of FST were comprised of 10% soldiers versus 1% EST soldiers, 44% of center chambers were occupied exclusively by EST. When the only food source was located in the center chamber, 60% of center chambers were occupied by both species. FST did not completely displace EST in any of these experiments.     

Changes in Respiration of Seedling Roots Inoculated with Phytophthora cinnamomi

An increase in rate of respiration was recorded for intact roots of seven native Australian species 16 h after inoculation with Phytophthora cinnamomi. By 24 h the magnitude of the increase ranged from 2—159% above that of the uninoculated controls and was evidently not related to host susceptibility. A time sequence study of lesion extension and the associated increased respiration rates for both susceptible and tolerant eucalypts demonstrated a difference in response. The rate of respiration in the tolerant species increased 2 % and only at the site of inoculation, whereas in the susceptible species the respiration rate increased in a wave which began at the inoculation site and continued along the root with the advancing fungal invasion. Respiration rate only increased in regions of the root actually inhabited by the pathogen. The fungal contribution to the total respiration of infected roots was less than 1 % and was determined by measuring respiration of inoculated killed roots. Respiration rates were measured in the presence of potassium cyanide (KCN) and salicylhydroxamic acid (SHAM). Both KCN-sensitive and SHAM-sensitive respiration occurred in normal uninfected E. marginate seedlings. A large proportion of the increase in total respiration rate of infected seedlings compared with uninoculated controls was due to the alternate, SHAM-sensitive pathway. The physiological implications of these results are discussed.     

Acoustic detection of termite infestations in urban trees

A portable, low-frequency acoustic system was used to detect termite infestations in urban trees. The likelihood of infestation was rated independently by a computer program and an experienced listener that distinguished insect sounds from background noises. Because soil is a good insulator, termite sounds could be detected easily underneath infested trees, despite the presence of high urban background noise. Termite sounds could be detected also in trunks, but background noise often made it difficult to identify termite signals unambiguously. High likelihoods of termite infestation were predicted at four live oak (Quercus virginiana Mill, Fagacae), two loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L., Pinacae), and two baldcypress (Taxodium distichum Rich. Pinacae) trees that wood-baited traps had identified as infested with Coptotermes formosanus Shiraki. Infestations also were predicted at two pine trees with confirmed recoveries of Reticulitermes flavipes (Kollar). Low likelihoods of infestation were predicted in four oak trees where no termites were found. Additional tests were conducted in anechoic environments to determine the range of acoustic detectability and the feasibility of acoustically estimating termite population levels. There was a significant regression between the activity rate and the number of termites present in a wood trap block, with a minimum detectable number of approximately 50 workers per liter of wood. The success of these field tests suggests that currently available acoustic systems have considerable potential to detect and monitor hidden infestations of termites in urban trees and around building perimeters in addition to their present uses to detect and monitor termite infestations in buildings.     

Insecticide susceptibility in Coptotermes formosanus and Reticulitermes virginicus (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae).

Lethal time to mortality responses were established for eight insecticides against workers and soldiers of the Formosan subterranean termite, Coptotermes formosanus Shiraki, and workers of Reticulitermes virginicus (Banks). There were significant differences in the tolerance ratios between workers of C. formosanus colonies to all toxicants tested except fipronil. One colony was 16 times more tolerant than another to deltamethin. C. formosanus soldiers had significant differences in tolerance ratios among colonies exposed to all toxicants except chlorpyrifos. Methoxychlor, permethrin, deltamethrin, and fipronil did not kill soldiers from two, one, one, and three colonies, respectively, within 8 h. Seventy-five percent of R. virginicus colonies were significantly less susceptible than the most susceptible colony to chlordane, methoxychlor, chlorpyrifos, cypermethrin, and fipronil, with 50% of the colonies less susceptible to permethrin and bendiocarb. In 50% of C. formosanus colonies the worker lethal time curves displayed substantial flattening in response to permethrin, and deltamethrin. Lethal time curses for C. formosanus soldiers exposed to chlordane, chlorpyrifos, permethrin, cypermethrin, deltamethrin, and bendiocarb showed substantial flattening. R. virginicus workers demonstrated substantial curve flattening when exposed to chlordane, methoxychlor, chlorpyrifos, deltamethrin, and fipronil. These findings indicate substantial intercolony and intra-colony differences in susceptibility to insecticides.