The role of ependymin in the development of long lasting synaptic changes

1.) Three types of training experiments (a complex motor task, avoidance conditioning and classical conditioning) in the goldfish and one in the mouse (T-maze learning) indicate that the brain extracellular glycoprotein (ependymin) has a role in the consolidation process of long-term memory formation. 2.) Direct ELISA measures of the concentration of ependymin in the brain extracellular fluid (ECF) indicate that its level decreases after goldfish learn to associate a light stimulus (cs) with the subsequent arrival of a shock (US): paired CS-US gave changes whereas an unpaired presentation of CS-US gave no changes in comparison to unstimulated controls. 3.) Ependymin is released into ECF and CSF as mixtures of three types of disulfide-linked dimers of two acidic polypeptide chains (M. W. 37 kDa and 31 kDa). It contains 10% carbohydrate as an N-linked glycan. 4.) Ependymin has the capacity to polymerize in response to events that deplete Ca2+ from the brain extracellular environment. A molecular hypothesis relating polymerization properties to the process of formation of long-lasting synaptic changes is proposed. 5.) Investigations of the pattern of regeneration of goldfish optic nerve and the mechanisms of long-term potentiation (LTP) of rat brain hippocampal slices suggest that ependymin has a role in the formation of long-lasting synaptic changes. The E.M. data show that polymerized products which stain with anti-ependymin sera accumulate at synapses and in new spines after LTP.     

Extracellular Fluid Proteins of Goldfish Brain: Evidence for the Presence of Proteases and Esterases

Preparations of enriched fractions of extracellular fluid (ECF) proteins from goldfish brain were found to contain protease(s) and esterase(s). The N-substituted furanacryloyl (FA) peptides FA-Phe-Gly-Gly and FA-Phe-OMe were used as model substrates for determining protease and esterase activity, respectively, in a spectrophotometric assay. Studies of the profile of substrate specificity and identification of the types of compounds that were effective as inhibitors showed that these ECF enzymes have some distinctive properties. GSH, but not GSSG, and EDTA inhibited the protease(s) without influencing the esterase(s), whereas L-1-tosylamide-2-phenylethylchloromethyl ketone blocked both protease and esterase activities of ECF. Most of the protease and esterase properties of ECF could be bound to concanavalin A-Sepharose affinity chromatographic columns in association with ependymin--a brain extracellular protein. These observations indicate that ECF may contain a metalloprotease(s) and raise the possibility that the ependymins might be a substrate for these ECF enzymes.     

Proteins of the Brain Extracellular Fluid: Evidence for Release of S-100 Protein

Abstract: Extracellular protein fractions were obtained (1) by mild, isotonic irrigation of freshly perfused brain tissue; (2) by collection of proteins released into super-fusing medium by physiologically viable slices of rat hippocampus; and (3) by sampling the CSF of anesthetized rats. Analysis of the S-100 protein content of these fractions gave values of 2.8, 4.2, and 1.8 μg S-100/mg protein, respectively. These values were three- to sixfold higher than the S-100 content of the soluble cytoplasmic protein fractions from the same tissue. This several-fold higher S-100 content of the extracellular protein fractions relative to the intracellular cytoplasmic protein fractions indicates that S-100 is selectively released into the extracellular spaces of the brain. We suggest that the biological function of this CNS protein may involve intercellular transfer.     

Extracellular fluid proteins of goldfish brain: Studies of concentration and labeling patterns

An extraction procedure for the isolation of proteins from the extracellular fluid (ECF) of goldfish brain was developed and applied in an investigation of the time course and pattern of labeling of ECF proteins. The results indicate that two out of the many protein bands present, which migrated at 32,000 and 26,000 daltons on SDS-polyacrylamide electrophoretic gels, could incorporate as much as 50% of the label of the ECF fraction, even though their concentration was only 14%. Measurements of the protein content of the ECF and its volume (24% of the brain) by the inulin method were used to calculate the protein concentration in the extracellular space of goldfish brain. This gave a value of 1.6–2%, i.e., about 50% of the value obtained for the protein concentration of the cytoplasmic fraction devoid of particulate matter. Such a result suggests that the goldfish brain intracellular and extracellular fluids, separated by the neural membranes, contain relatively comparable levels of proteins.     

Proteins of the extracellular fluid of mouse brain: extraction and partial characterization

An extraction procedure for the isolation of proteins from the brain extracellular fluid (ECF) was developed and applied to studies of the ECF components of mouse brain. Perfused intact brains were incubated in an isotonic medium for periods of up to 2 h at 0 degrees C to allow the release of ECF into the medium without disruption of the integrity of the tissue. The validity of the extraction procedure was established by (a) the fact that the total yield of ECF proteins was constant per unit weight of brain tissue, (b) the absence of tyrosine hydroxylase, an enzyme marker of the cytoplasmic fraction, from the extracts, and (c) the distinctive features of the one- and two-dimensional gel electrophoretic patterns of ECF proteins as compared with those of the cytoplasmic and membrane fractions. The results indicate that the extracellular fluid of mouse brain contains a mixture of proteins with a wide distribution of molecular weights (10,000-100,000 daltons) at a concentration level of about 0.3%.     

Demonstration of glucuronic acid on brain glycoproteins which react with HNK-1 antibody

Ependymins, a family of extracellular glycoproteins of goldfish and mammalian brain, were shown to contain N-linked complex glycan chains. These glycoproteins reacted with a monoclonal antibody, HNK-1 which recognizes a membrane antigen on a subset of human lymphocytes, myelin-associated glycoprotein glycoprotein epitope reacting with HNK-1 antibody was previously shown to include a terminal 3-sulfoglucuronosyl residue present in certain glycolipids of the nervous tissue (Chou et al., Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 1985, 128, 383-388). In this report, the presence of glucuronic acid in ependymins was demonstrated by gas-liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry. We suggest that a 3-sulfoglucuronosyl residue may be the common epitope on HNK-1-reactive glycoproteins.     

A Radioimmunoassay for Ependymins β and γ: Two Goldfish Brain Proteins Involved in Behavioral Plasticity

Abstract: A radioimmunoassay (RIA) using ¹²⁵I-labeled antigen was developed for the quantitative determination of two goldfish brain proteins (ependymins β and γ). The proteins were isolated from the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and cells of the ependymal zone surrounding goldfish brain ventricles. The turnover rates of β and γ were previously shown to be specifically enhanced after the animals successfully acquired a new pattern of swimming behavior. Femtomole quantities of ependymin β were measurable by the RIA. In applications of the assay, β and γ ependymins were found to have common immunological properties, since ¹²⁵I-β-antigen bound to antibody could be displaced by unlabeled ependymin γ as well as ependymin β but not by a variety of other proteins including several purified glycoproteins isolated from goldfish brain. The ependymins were shown to constitute 14% of the total protein content of the brain extracellular fluid and also to be present as a minor component of the serum proteins (0.3%). Ependymins β and γ have an immunological reactivity in these fractions that can be increased by a factor of 30 on heating. The data suggest that the antigenicity of the molecules is highly masked, and that it may require some unraveling of the quaternary structure of the proteins before maximal interaction with the antisera becomes possible.     

Genes encoding giant danio and golden shiner ependymin

Ependymin (EPN) is a brain glycoprotein that functions as a neurotrophic factor in optic nerve regeneration and long-term memory consolidation in goldfish. To date, trueepn genes have been characterized in one order of teleost fish,Cypriniformes. In the study presented here, polymerase chain reactions were used to analyze the completeepn genes,gd (1480 bp), andsh (2071 bp), fromCypriniformes giant danio and shiner, respectively. Southern hybridizations demonstrated the existence of one copy of each gene per corresponding haploid, genome. Each gene was found to contain six exons and five introns. Genegd encodes a predicted 218-amino acid (aa) protein GD 93% conserved to goldfish EPN, whilesh encodes a predicted 214-aa protein SH 91% homologous to goldfish. Evidence is presented classifying proteins previously termed “EPNs” into two major categories: true EPNs and non-EPN cerebrospinal fluid glycoproteins. Proteins GD and SH contain all the hallmark features of true EPNs.     

The effect of low temperatures on banana yields

Banana yields from four regions in Israel have been correlated with low temperatures over a period of eleven years. It was found that the average monthly minimum temperatures during the winter season affect primarily the yield of the current year, while the "quantity of cold" i.e. a measure of temperatures below 5°C affects the yield of the following year. Mild cold weather during November and March have a beneficial effect. The model used fitted the data fairly well, explaining 98% to 61% of the total variation in yield, depending on the climatic region.

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Zusammenfassung Bananenerträge von 4 Regionen in Israel wurden mit niedrigen Temperaturen während einer Periode von 11 Jahren korreliert. Es wurde gefunden, dass die mittleren monatlichen Minimaltemperaturen während des Winters primär die Erträge des laufenden Jahres beeinflussen, während sich die "Kältemenge", das ist die Anzahl Stunden mit Temperaturen unter 5°C, auf die Erträge des folgenden Jahres auswirkt. Mildes kaltes Wetter von November bis März hat einen günstigen Einfluss. Die benutzten mathematischen Modelle stimmten mit den Messwerte gut überein. Je nach der klimatischen Region liessen sich damit 98% bis 61% der Gesamtvariation der Erträge erklären.

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Resume On a établi la corrélation entre le rendement des bananeraies de quatre régions d'Israël d'une part, les basses températures d'autre part. La période considérée est de ll ans. On a constaté que les minimums mensuels moyens de l'hiver affectent en premier lieu la production de l'année en cours. Par contre, les quantités cumulées de froid, c'est-à-dire le nombre d'heures présentant des températures inférieures à 5°C, ont une répercussion sur la production de l'année suivante. Un temps frais de novembre à mars a une influence favorable sur le rendement. L'utilisation de modèles mathématiques permet fort bien de calculer la récolte et les valeurs ainsi obtenues correspondent aux quantités effectivement récoltées. Selon les régions climatiques, le 98 à 61% de la variation totale des quantités récoltées peut s'expliquer de cette façon.

     

RAPIDLY LABELED AND SECRETED PROTEINS OF THE CHICK BRAIN

Abstract— The extracellular and cerebrospinal fluids (ECF) of the chick brain were found to contain a distinctive group of rapidly labeled proteins. Gel staining patterns suggest that most ECF protein bands correspond with components also found in either the homogenized whole brain cytoplasmic fraction or the blood serum. The valine-incorporation profiles of these three fractions, however, were entirely distinctive. Comparisons were carried out using a sensitive double-labeling method, in which ECF proteins from chicks labeled for 1 h with [³H]valine were comigrated on SDS-polyacrylamide gels with the cytoplasmic or serum proteins from a ¹⁴C-labeled animal. Analyses of the ³H- and ¹⁴C-labeling profiles from these gels showed that certain newly-synthesized proteins are heavily enriched in the ECF relative to the other two fractions. Most prominently, material with an apparent molecular weight of # 17,000 was found to incorporate nearly one-third of all the radioactivity appearing in the ECF proteins, but was not heavily labeled in either the cytoplasmic or serum fractions. The effects of a simple training experience on the pattern of chicks' brain protein synthesis were also examined.