Epstein-Barr Virus Transcytosis through Polarized Oral Epithelial Cells

Although Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is an orally transmitted virus, viral transmission through the oropharyngeal mucosal epithelium is not well understood. In this study, we investigated how EBV traverses polarized human oral epithelial cells without causing productive infection. We found that EBV may be transcytosed through oral epithelial cells bidirectionally, from both the apical to the basolateral membranes and the basolateral to the apical membranes. Apical to basolateral EBV transcytosis was substantially reduced by amiloride, an inhibitor of macropinocytosis. Electron microscopy showed that virions were surrounded by apical surface protrusions and that virus was present in subapical vesicles. Inactivation of signaling molecules critical for macropinocytosis, including phosphatidylinositol 3-kinases, myosin light-chain kinase, Ras-related C3 botulinum toxin substrate 1, p21-activated kinase 1, ADP-ribosylation factor 6, and cell division control protein 42 homolog, led to significant reduction in EBV apical to basolateral transcytosis. In contrast, basolateral to apical EBV transcytosis was substantially reduced by nystatin, an inhibitor of caveolin-mediated virus entry. Caveolae were detected in the basolateral membranes of polarized human oral epithelial cells, and virions were detected in caveosome-like endosomes. Methyl β-cyclodextrin, an inhibitor of caveola formation, reduced EBV basolateral entry. EBV virions transcytosed in either direction were able to infect B lymphocytes. Together, these data show that EBV transmigrates across oral epithelial cells by (i) apical to basolateral transcytosis, potentially contributing to initial EBV penetration that leads to systemic infection, and (ii) basolateral to apical transcytosis, which may enable EBV secretion into saliva in EBV-infected individuals.     

The dynamic recruitment of TRBP to neuronal membranes mediates dendritogenesis during development

MicroRNAs are important regulators of local protein synthesis during neuronal development. We investigated the dynamic regulation of microRNA production and found that the majority of the microRNA‐generating complex, consisting of Dicer, TRBP, and PACT, specifically associates with intracellular membranes in developing neurons. Stimulation with brain‐derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), which promotes dendritogenesis, caused the redistribution of TRBP from the endoplasmic reticulum into the cytoplasm, and its dissociation from Dicer, in a Ca²⁺‐dependent manner. As a result, the processing of a subset of neuronal precursor microRNAs, among them the dendritically localized pre‐miR16, was impaired. Decreased production of miR‐16‐5p, which targeted the BDNF mRNA itself, was rescued by expression of a membrane‐targeted TRBP. Moreover, miR‐16‐5p or membrane‐targeted TRBP expression blocked BDNF‐induced dendritogenesis, demonstrating the importance of neuronal TRBP dynamics for activity‐dependent neuronal development. We propose that neurons employ specialized mechanisms to modulate local gene expression in dendrites, via the dynamic regulation of microRNA biogenesis factors at intracellular membranes of the endoplasmic reticulum, which in turn is crucial for neuronal dendrite complexity and therefore neuronal circuit formation and function.     

An Acidic Cluster in the Cytosolic Domain of Human Cytomegalovirus Glycoprotein B Is a Signal for Endocytosis from the Plasma Membrane

We previously reported that human cytomegalovirus (CMV) glycoprotein B (gB) is transported to apical membranes in CMV-infected polarized retinal pigment epithelial (ARPE-19) cells and in Madin-Darby canine kidney (MDCK) epithelial cells constitutively expressing gB. The cytosolic domain of gB contains a cluster of acidic amino acids, a motif that plays a pivotal role in vectorial trafficking in polarized epithelial cells and may also function as a signal for entry into the endocytic pathway. Here we compared gB internalization and recycling to the plasma membrane in CMV-infected human fibroblasts (HF) and ARPE-19 cells by using antibody-internalization experiments. Immunofluorescence and quantitative assays showed that gB was internalized from the cell surface into clathrin-coated transport vesicles and then recycled to the plasma membrane. gB colocalized with clathrin-coated vesicles containing the transferrin receptor in the early endocytic/recycling pathway, indicating that gB traffics in this pathway. The specific role of the acidic cluster in regulating the sorting of gB-containing vesicles in the early endocytic/recycling pathway was examined in MDCK cells expressing mutated gB derivatives. Immunofluorescence assays showed that derivatives lacking the acidic cluster were impaired in internalization and failed to recycle. These findings, together with our earlier observation that the acidic cluster is a key determinant for targeting gB molecules to apical membranes in epithelial cells, establish that this signal is recognized by cellular proteins that participate in polarized sorting and transport in the early endocytic/recycling pathway.     

Mutations in the carboxyl-terminal hydrophobic sequence of human cytomegalovirus glycoprotein B alter transport and protein chaperone binding.

Human cytomegalovirus glycoprotein B (gB) plays a role in the fusion of the virion envelope with the host cell membrane and in syncytium formation in infected cells. Hydrophobic sequences at the carboxyl terminus, amino acids (aa) 714 to 771, anchor gB in the lipid bilayer, but the unusual length of this domain suggests that it may serve another role in gB structure. To explore the function(s) of this region, we deleted aa 717 to 747 (gB deltaI mutation), aa 751 to 771 (gB deltaII mutation), and aa 717 to 772 (gB deltaI-II mutation) and constructed a substitution mutation, Lys-748 to Val (Lys748Val)-Asn749Ala-Pro750Ile (gB KNPm). Mutated forms of gB were expressed in U373 glioblastoma cells and subjected to analysis by flow cytometry, confocal microscopy, and immunoprecipitation. Mutations gB deltaI-II and gB deltaII alone caused secretion of gB into the medium, confirming that aa 751 to 771 function as a membrane anchor. In contrast, mutations gB deltaI and gB KNPm blocked cell surface expression and arrested gB transport in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Detailed examination of gB deltaI and gB KNPm with a panel of monoclonal antibodies showed that the mutated forms were indistinguishable from wild-type gB in conformation and formed oligomers; however, they remained sensitive to endoglycosidase H and did not undergo endoproteolytic cleavage. Analysis of protein complexes formed by gB and molecular chaperones in the ER showed that calnexin and calreticulin, lectin-like chaperones, bound equal amounts of uncleaved wild-type gB, gB deltaI, and gB KNPm, but the glucose-regulated proteins 78 (BiP) and 94 formed stable complexes only with the mutated forms, causing their retention in the ER. Our studies show that aa 714 to 750 are key residues in the architecture of gB molecules and that the ER chaperones, which facilitate gB folding and monitor the quality of glycoproteins, detect subtle changes in folding intermediates that are conferred by mutations in this region.     

A Novel Human Cytomegalovirus Glycoprotein, gpUS9, Which Promotes Cell-to-Cell Spread in Polarized Epithelial Cells, Colocalizes with the Cytoskeletal Proteins E-Cadherin and F-Actin

Processes by which human herpesviruses penetrate and are released from polarized epithelial cells, which have distinct apical and basolateral membrane domains differing in protein and lipid content, are poorly understood. We recently reported that human cytomegalovirus (CMV) mutants with deletions of the gene US9 formed wild-type plaques in cultures of human fibroblasts but were impaired in the capacity for cell-to-cell spread in polarized human retinal pigment epithelial cells. Unlike the glycoproteins that are required for infection, the protein encoded by CMV US9 plays an accessory role by promoting dissemination of virus across cell-cell junctions of polarized epithelial cells. To identify the product and investigate its specialized functions, we selected Madine-Darby canine kidney II (MDCK) epithelial cells that constitutively express CMV US9 or, as a control, US8. The gene products, designated gpUS9 and gpUS8, were glycosylated proteins of comparable molecular masses but differed considerably in intracellular distribution and solubility. Immunofluorescence laser scanning confocal microscopy indicated that, like gpUS8, gpUS9 was present in the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi compartments of nonpolarized cells. In polarized epithelial cells, gpUS9 also accumulated along lateral membranes, colocalizing with cadherin and actin, and was insoluble in Triton X-100, a property shared with proteins that associate with the cytoskeleton. We hypothesize that gpUS9 may enhance the dissemination of CMV in infected epithelial tissues by associating with the cytoskeletal matrix.     

Accessory human cytomegalovirus glycoprotein US9 in the unique short component of the viral genome promotes cell-to-cell transmission of virus in polarized epithelial cells.

Human cytomegalovirus (CMV) encodes accessory glycoproteins that are dispensable for virus growth in nonpolarized cells in culture. We report that CMV deletion mutants lacking the gene for accessory glycoprotein US9 in the unique short component of the viral genome are impaired in plaque formation in polarized human retinal pigment epithelial (ARPE-19) cells. Comparison of CMV deletion mutants in US9 with herpes simplex virus type 1 deletion mutants lacking glycoproteins gE and gI showed that both of these mutants are impaired in altering junctional complexes and increasing paracellular permeability in polarized ARPE-19 cells cultured on permeable filter supports. Results of functional studies indicate that CMV US9 and homologs of gE have analogous roles in promoting virus spread across lateral membranes of polarized epithelial cells.     

Human Cytomegalovirus Glycoprotein B Contains Autonomous Determinants for Vectorial Targeting to Apical Membranes of Polarized Epithelial Cells

We previously reported that human cytomegalovirus (CMV) glycoprotein B (gB) is vectorially transported to apical membranes of CMV-infected polarized human retinal pigment epithelial cells propagated on permeable filter supports and that virions egress predominantly from the apical membrane domain. In the present study, we investigated whether gB itself contains autonomous information for apical transport by expressing the molecule in stably transfected Madine-Darby canine kidney (MDCK) cells grown on permeable filter supports. Laser scanning confocal immunofluorescence microscopy and domain-selective biotinylation of surface membrane domains showed that CMV gB was transported to apical membranes independently of other envelope glycoproteins and that it colocalized with proteins in transport vesicles of the biosynthetic and endocytic pathways. Determinants for trafficking to apical membranes were located by evaluating the targeting of gB derivatives with deletions in the lumen, transmembrane (TM) anchor, and carboxyl terminus. Derivative gB(Δ717-747), with an internal deletion in the luminal juxtamembrane sequence that preserved the N- and O-glycosylation sites, retained vectorial transport to apical membranes. In contrast, derivatives that lacked the TM anchor and cytosolic domain (gBΔ646-906) or the TM anchor alone (gBΔ751-771) underwent considerable basolateral targeting. Likewise, derivatives lacking the entire cytosolic domain (gBΔ772-906) or the last 73 amino acids (gBΔ834-906) showed disrupted apical transport. Site-specific mutations that deleted or altered the cluster of acidic residues with a casein kinase II phosphorylation site at the extreme carboxyl terminus, which can serve as an internalization signal, caused partial missorting of gB to basolateral membranes. Our studies indicate that CMV gB contains autonomous information for apical targeting in luminal, TM anchor, and cytosolic domain sequences, forming distinct structural elements that cooperate in vectorial transport in polarized epithelial cells.