Free and polymerized tubulin in cultured bone cells and Chinese hamster ovary cells: the influence of cold and hormones

A low pH method of liposome-membrane fusion (Schneider et al., 1980, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 77:442) was used to enrich the mitochondrial inner membrane lipid bilayer 30-700% with exogenous phospholipid and cholesterol. By varying the phospholipid-to- cholesterol ratio of the liposomes it was possible to incorporate specific amounts of cholesterol (up to 44 mol %) into the inner membrane bilayer in a controlled fashion. The membrane surface area increased proportionally to the increase in total membrane bilayer lipid. Inner membrane enriched with phospholipid only, or with phospholipid plus cholesterol up to 20 mol %, showed randomly distributed intramembrane particles (integral proteins) in the membrane plane, and the average distance between intramembrane particles increased proportionally to the amount of newly incorporated lipid. Membranes containing between 20 and 27 mol % cholesterol exhibited small clusters of intramembrane particles while cholesterol contents above 27 mol % resulted in larger aggregations of intramembrane particles. In phospholipid-enriched membranes with randomly dispersed intramembrane particles, electron transfer activities from NADH- and succinate-dehydrogenase to cytochrome c decreased proportionally to the increase in distance between the particles. In contrast, these electron- transfer activities increased with decreasing distances between intramembrane particles brought about by cholesterol incorporation. These results indicate that (a) catalytically interacting redox components in the mitochondrial inner membrane such as the dehydrogenase complexes, ubiquinone, and heme proteins are independent, laterally diffusible components; (b) the average distance between these redox components is effected by the available surface area of the membrane lipid bilayer; and (c) the distance over which redox components diffuse before collision and electron transfer mediates the rate of such transfer.     

In situ molecular hybridization for detection of Aleutian mink disease parvovirus DNA by using strand-specific probes: identification of target cells for viral replication in cell cultures and in mink kits with virus-induced interstitial pneumonia.

Strand-specific hybridization probes were utilized in in situ molecular hybridization specifically to localize replicative form DNA of Aleutian mink disease parvovirus (ADV). Throughout in vitro infection, duplex replicative form DNA of ADV was located in the cell nuclei. Single-stranded virion DNA and capsid proteins were present in the nuclei early in infection, but were later translocated to the cytoplasm. In neonatal mink, ADV causes acute interstitial pneumonia, and replicative forms of viral DNA were found predominantly in alveolar type II cells of the lung. Viral DNA was also found in other organs, but strand-specific probes made it possible to show that most of this DNA represented virus sequestration. In addition, glomerular immune complexes containing intact virions were detected, suggesting that ADV virions may have a role in the genesis of ADV-induced glomerulonephritis.     

N-terminal truncation of the scrapie-associated form of PrP by lysosomal protease(s): implications regarding the site of conversion of PrP to the protease-resistant state.

Scrapie and related transmissible spongiform encephalopathies result in the accumulation of a protease-resistant form of an endogenous brain protein called PrP. As an approach to understanding the scrapie-associated modification of PrP, we have studied the processing and sedimentation properties of protease-resistant PrP (PrP-res) in scrapie-infected mouse neuroblastoma cells. Like brain-derived PrP-res, the neuroblastoma cell PrP-res aggregated in detergent lysates, providing evidence that the tendency to aggregate is an intrinsic property of PrP-res and not merely a secondary consequence of degenerative brain pathology. The PrP-res species had lower apparent molecular masses than the normal, protease-sensitive PrP species and were not affected by moderate treatments with proteinase K. This suggested that the PrP-res species were partially proteolyzed by the neuroblastoma cells. Immunoblot analysis of PrP-res with a panel of monospecific anti-PrP peptide sera confirmed that the PrP-res species were quantitatively truncated at the N terminus. The metabolic labeling of PrP-res in serum-free medium did not prevent the proteolysis of PrP-res, showing that the protease(s) involved was cellular rather than serum-derived. The PrP-res truncation was inhibited in intact cells by leupeptin and NH4Cl. This provided evidence that a lysosomal protease(s) was involved, and therefore, that PrP-res was translocated to lysosomes. When considered with other studies, these results imply that the conversion of PrP to the protease-resistant state occurs in the plasma membrane or along an endocytic pathway before PrP-res is exposed to endosomal and lysosomal proteases.     

Neuropathological changes in scrapie and Alzheimer's disease are associated with increased expression of apolipoprotein E and cathepsin D in astrocytes.

With the rationale that the neuropathological similarities between scrapie and Alzheimer's disease reflect convergent pathological mechanisms involving altered gene expression, we set out to identify molecular events involved in both processes, using scrapie as a model to study the time course of these changes. We differentially screened a cDNA library constructed from scrapie-infected mice to identify mRNAs that increase or decrease during disease and discovered in this way two mRNAs that are increased in scrapie and Alzheimer's disease. These mRNAs were subsequently shown by sequence analysis to encode apolipoprotein E and cathepsin D (EC 3.4.23.5). Using in situ hybridization and immunocytochemistry to define the cellular and anatomic pathology of altered gene expression, we found that in both diseases the increase in apolipoprotein E and cathepsin D mRNAs and proteins occurred in activated astrocytes. In scrapie, the increase in gene expression occurred soon after the amyloid-forming abnormal isoform of the prion protein has been shown to accumulate in astrocytes. In Alzheimer's disease, the increased expression of cathepsin D also occurred in association with beta-amyloid. These studies reveal some of the molecular antecedents of neuropathological changes in scrapie and Alzheimer's disease and accord new prominence to the role of astrocytes in neurodegenerative conditions.     

Differential growth kinetics are exhibited by human immunodeficiency virus type 1 TAR mutants.

The human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) TAR element is critical for the activation of gene expression by the transactivator protein, Tat. Mutagenesis has demonstrated that a stable stem-loop RNA structure containing both loop and bulge structures transcribed from TAR is the major target for tat activation. Though transient assays have defined elements critical for TAR function, no studies have yet determined the role of TAR in viral replication because of the inability to generate viral stocks containing mutations in TAR. In the current study, we developed a strategy which enabled us to generate stable 293 cell lines which were capable of producing high titers of different viruses containing TAR mutations. Viruses generated from these cell lines were used to infect both T-lymphocyte cell lines and peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Viruses containing TAR mutations in either the upper stem, the bulge, or the loop exhibited dramatically decreased HIV-1 gene expression and replication in all cell lines tested. However, we were able to isolate lymphoid cell lines which stably expressed gene products from each of these TAR mutant viruses. Though the amounts of virus in these cell lines were roughly equivalent, cells containing TAR mutant viruses were extremely defective for gene expression compared with cell lines containing wild-type virus. The magnitude of this decrease in viral gene expression was much greater than previously seen in transient expression assays using HIV-1 long terminal repeat chloramphenicol acetyltransferase gene constructs. In contrast to the defects in viral growth found in T-lymphocyte cell lines, several of the viruses containing TAR mutations were much less defective for gene expression and replication in activated peripheral blood mononuclear cells. These results indicate that maintenance of the TAR element is critical for viral gene expression and replication in all cell lines tested, though the cell type which is infected is also a major determinant of the replication properties of TAR mutant viruses.     

Heterologous PrP molecules interfere with accumulation of protease-resistant PrP in scrapie-infected murine neuroblastoma cells.

Mutations within a host cellular protein, PrP, have been associated with disease in the transmissible spongiform encephalopathies. Murine neuroblastoma cells persistently infected with mouse scrapie accumulate protease-resistant PrP (PrP-res), the abnormal form of PrP associated with disease in the transmissible spongiform encephalopathies. These cells provide a controlled system in which to study the molecular interactions which are important in the formation of PrP-res. We have expressed recombinant PrP molecules in mouse scrapie-infected murine neuroblastoma cells and assayed the effect of these heterologous PrP genes on the formation and accumulation of PrP-res. The results demonstrate that expression of heterologous PrP molecules which differ from the endogenous PrP by as little as one amino acid can profoundly interfere with the overall accumulation of PrP-res. The data suggest that precise interactions between homologous PrP molecules are important in PrP-res accumulation and that heterologous PrP molecules can block these interactions.     

Movements and associations of ribosomal subunits in a secretory cell during growth inhibition by starvation

In Chironomus tentans salivary gland cells, the cytoplasm can be dissected into concentric zones situated at increasing distances from the nuclear envelope. After RNA labeling, the newly made ribosomal subunits are found in the cytoplasm mainly in the neighborhood of the nucleus with a gradient of increasing abundance towards the periphery of the cell. The gradient for the small subunit lasts for a few hours and disappears entirely after treatment with puromycin. The large subunit also forms a gradient but one which is only partially abolished by puromycin. The residual gradient which which is resistant to the addition of the drug is probably due to the binding of some large ribosomal units to the membranes of the endoplasmic reticulum (J.-E. Edstrom and u. Lonn. 1976. J. Cell Biol. 70:562-572, and U. Lonn and J.-E. Edstrom. 1976. J. Cell. Biol. 70:573-580). If growth is inhibited by starvation, only the puromycin-sensitive type gradient is observed for the large subunit, suggesting that the attachment of these newly made subunits to the endoplasmic reticulum membranes will not occur. If, on the other hand, the drug-resistant gradient is allowed to form in feeding animals, it is conserved during a subsequent starvation for longer periods than in control feeding animals. This observation provides a further support for an effect of starvation on the normal turnover of the large subunits associated with the endoplasmic reticulum. These results also indicate a considerable structural stability in the cytoplasm of these cells worth little or no gross redistribution of cytoplasmic structures over a period of at least 6 days.     

Characterization of Aleutian disease virus as a parvovirus.

We characterized a strain of Aleutian disease virus adapted to growth in Crandall feline kidney cells at 31.8 degrees C. When purified from infected cells, Aleutian disease virus had a density in CsCl of 1.42 to 1.44 g/ml and was 24 to 26 nm in diameter. [3H]thymidine could be incorporated into the viral genome, and the viral DNA was then studied. In alkaline sucrose gradients, Aleutian disease virus DNA was a single species that cosedimented at 15.5S with single-stranded DNA from adeno-associated virus. When the DNA was analyzed on neutral sucrose gradients, a single species was again observed, which sedimented at 21S and was clearly distinct from 16S duplex adeno-associated virus DNA. A similar result was obtained even after incubation under annealing conditions, implying that the bulk of Aleutian disease virus virions contained a single non-complementary strand with a molecular weight of about 1.4 X 10(6). In addition, two major virus-associated polypeptides with molecular weights of 89,100 and 77,600 were demonstrated by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis of virus purified from infected cultures labeled with [35S]methionine. These data suggest that Aleutian disease virus is a nondefective parvovirus.     

Sedimentation characteristics of the scrapie agent from murine spleen and brain.

Sedimentation profiles of the scrapie agent in extracts of murine spleen and brain were determined by analytical differential centrifugation. Infectivity profiles of the agent from the two tissues were similar. Sedimentation of the agent was not substantially altered by detergent treatment with sodium deoxycholate. In the presence of detergent, centrifugation at an omega2t value of 3.0 x 1010 rad2/s in a fixed-angle rotor sedimented 90% of the agent. Comparative studies with radioisotopically labeled Simian virus 40 showed that centrifugation at an omega2t value of 1.6 x 10(10) rad2/s removed 90% of the virions. The sedimentation profile of the scrapie agent was similar to that observed for cellular ribosomal RNA. Heating infectious extracts of spleen to 80 degrees C for 30 min resulted in the destruction of 95% of the RNA while sedimentation of the scrapie agent was unchanged. These studies establish a limited range of particle sizes for the scrapie agent.