The environmental fate and behaviour of antifouling paint booster biocides: A review

Antifouling paint booster biocides are a group of organic compounds added to antifouling paints to improve their efficacy. They have become prevalent since the requirement for alternative antifouling paints formulations for small boats (< 25 m). This need followed a ban on the use of triorganotin biocides in antifouling paints for small boats, in the late 1980's. Worldwide, around eighteen compounds are currently used as antifouling biocides, viz. benzmethylamide, chlorothalonil, copper pyrithione, dichlofluanid, diuron, fluorofolpet, Irgarol 1051, Sea‐Nine 211, Mancozeb, Polyphase, pyridine‐triphenyl‐borane, TCMS (2,3,5,6‐tetrachloro‐4‐methylsulfonyl) pyridine, TCMTB [2‐(thiocyanomethylthio)benzothia‐zole], Thiram, tolyfluanid, zinc pyrithione (ZPT), ziram and Zineb. Any booster biocide released into the environment is subjected to a complex set of processes. These processes include transport mechanisms, transformation, degradation, cross media partitioning, and bioaccumulation. This paper reviews the fate and behaviour data currently available in the public domain concerning antifouling paint booster biocides.     

Functional evolution of two subtly different (similar) folds

Background

The function of proteins is a direct consequence of their three-dimensional structure. The structural classification of proteins describes the ways of folding patterns all proteins could adopt. Although, the protein folds were described in many ways the functional properties of individual folds were not studied.

Results

We have analyzed two β-barrel folds generally adopted by small proteins to be looking similar but have different topology. On the basis of the topology they could be divided into two different folds named SH3-fold and OB-fold. There was no sequence homology between any of the proteins considered. The sequence diversity and loop variability was found to be important for various binding functions.

Conclusions

The function of Oligonucleotide/oligosaccharide-binding (OB) fold proteins was restricted to either DNA/RNA binding or sugar binding whereas the Src homology 3 (SH3) domain like proteins bind to a variety of ligands through loop modulations. A question was raised whether the evolution of these two folds was through DNA shuffling.     

Energetic cost of foraging in free-diving emperor penguins.

Hypothesizing that emperor penguins (Aptenodytes forsteri) would have higher daily energy expenditures when foraging for their food than when being hand-fed and that the increased expenditure could represent their foraging cost, we measured field metabolic rates (FMR; using doubly labeled water) over 4-d periods when 10 penguins either foraged under sea ice or were not allowed to dive but were fed fish by hand. Surprisingly, penguins did not have higher rates of energy expenditure when they dove and captured their own food than when they did not forage but were given food. Analysis of time-activity and energy budgets indicated that FMR was about 1.7 x BMR (basal metabolic rate) during the 12 h d(-1) that penguins were lying on sea ice. During the remaining 12 h d(-1), which we termed their "foraging period" of the day, the birds were alert and active (standing, preening, walking, and either free diving or being hand-fed), and their FMR was about 4.1 x BMR. This is the lowest cost of foraging estimated to date among the eight penguin species studied. The calculated aerobic diving limit (ADL(C)), determined with the foraging period metabolic rate of 4.1 x BMR and known O(2) stores, was only 2.6 min, which is far less than the 6-min ADL previously measured with postdive lactate analyses in emperors diving under similar conditions. This indicates that calculating ADL(C) from an at-sea or foraging-period metabolic rate in penguins is not appropriate. The relatively low foraging cost for emperor penguins contributes to their relatively low total daily FMR (2.9 x BMR). The allometric relationship for FMR in eight penguin species, including the smallest and largest living representatives, is kJ d(-1)=1,185 kg(0.705).     

Muscle energy stores and stroke rates of emperor penguins: implications for muscle metabolism and dive performance

In diving birds and mammals, bradycardia and peripheral vasoconstriction potentially isolate muscle from the circulation. During complete ischemia, ATP production is dependent on the size of the myoglobin oxygen (O(2)) store and the concentrations of phosphocreatine (PCr) and glycogen (Gly). Therefore, we measured PCr and Gly concentrations in the primary underwater locomotory muscle of emperor penguin and modeled the depletion of muscle O(2) and those energy stores under conditions of complete ischemia and a previously determined muscle metabolic rate. We also analyzed stroke rate to assess muscle workload variation during dives and evaluate potential limitations on the model. Measured PCr and Gly concentrations, 20.8 and 54.6 mmol kg(-1), respectively, were similar to published values for nondiving animals. The model demonstrated that PCr and Gly provide a large anaerobic energy store, even for dives longer than 20 min. Stroke rate varied throughout the dive profile, indicating muscle workload was not constant during dives as was assumed in the model. The stroke rate during the first 30 s of dives increased with increased dive depth. In extremely long dives, lower overall stroke rates were observed. Although O(2) consumption and energy store depletion may vary during dives, the model demonstrated that PCr and Gly, even at concentrations typical of terrestrial birds and mammals, are a significant anaerobic energy store and can play an important role in the emperor penguin's ability to perform long dives.     

Virus isolation and molecular epidemiology of highly pathogenic avian influenza A(H5N8) from an outbreak in free-ranging wild birds,India 2016

We report the molecular epidemiology of highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) virus involved in an outbreak causing death in free-ranging wild birds at Mysore, Karnataka state of India. The virus was typed as HPAI A(H5N8) by conventional and TaqMan probe based real-time PCR assays. Six isolates of HPAI virus were recovered in 9-day-old embryonated chicken eggs. Haemagglutinin gene-based phylogeny of virus isolates showed >?99.9% nucleotide sequence identity with HPAI A(H5N8) isolates from migratory birds and domestic poultry from China and Korea indicating either these wild birds have routed their migration through Korea and/or eastern China or these dead birds must have directly or indirectly contacted with wild birds migrating from Eastern China and/or Korean regions. The study emphasises the role of migratory wild birds in spread of HPAI across the globe.     

Cardiac output and stroke volume in swimming harbor seals

Summary Cardiac output was measured by the thermodilution method in three young harbor seals, at rest and while swimming up to the maximum effort for which they could be trained. Stroke volume was determined by counting heart rate simultaneously with determination of cardiac output. Cardiac outputs varied widely between surface breathing (7.8 ml · kg^–1 · s^–1) and breath-holding while swimming under water (1.8 ml · kg^–1 · s^–1). Stroke volume while at the surface was almost twice the volume white submerged. Surface cardiac output was always near maximal despite work effort, whereas submerged cardiac output gradually increased at higher work efforts. The cardiovascular performance of seals at the maximum MO₂ we could induce from them is equivalent to that of the domestic goat.Abbreviations CO Cardiac output - HR Heart rate - SV Stroke volume - MO ₂ Metabolic rate - FS Forced sumersion - V Velocity - C _DF Frontal drag coefficient - CV Cardiovascular Present address: Institute of Marine Science, University of Alaska, Fairbanks, AK, USA     

Visual pigments of marine carnivores: pinnipeds, polar bear, and sea otter

Rod and cone visual pigments of 11 marine carnivores were evaluated. Rod, middle/long-wavelength sensitive (M/L) cone, and short-wavelength sensitive (S) cone opsin (if present) sequences were obtained from retinal mRNA. Spectral sensitivity was inferred through evaluation of known spectral tuning residues. The rod pigments of all but one of the pinnipeds were similar to those of the sea otter, polar bear, and most other terrestrial carnivores with spectral peak sensitivities (λ_max) of 499 or 501 nm. Similarly, the M/L cone pigments of the pinnipeds, polar bear, and otter had inferred λ_max of 545 to 560 nm. Only the rod opsin sequence of the elephant seal had sensitivity characteristic of adaptation for vision in the marine environment, with an inferred λ_max of 487 nm. No evidence of S cones was found for any of the pinnipeds. The polar bear and otter had S cones with inferred λ_max of ∼440 nm. Flicker-photometric ERG was additionally used to examine the in situ sensitivities of three species of pinniped. Despite the use of conditions previously shown to evoke cone responses in other mammals, no cone responses could be elicited from any of these pinnipeds. Rod photoreceptor responses for all three species were as predicted by the genetic data.Electronic Supplementary Material Supplementary material is available for this article at and is accessible for authorized users.     

Cardiac output and muscle blood flow during rest-associated apneas of elephant seals

In order to evaluate hemodynamics and blood flow during rest-associated apnea in young elephant seals (Mirounga angustirostris), cardiac outputs (CO, thermodilution), heart rates (HR), and muscle blood flow (MBF, laser Doppler flowmetry) were measured. Mean apneic COs and HRs of three seals were 46% and 39% less than eupneic values, respectively (2.1+/-0.3 vs. 4.0+/-0.1 mL kg(-1) s(-1), and 54+/-6 vs. 89+/-14 beats min(-1)). The mean apneic stroke volume (SV) was not significantly different from the eupneic value (2.3+/-0.2 vs. 2.7+/-0.5 mL kg(-1)). Mean apneic MBF of three seals was 51% of the eupneic value. The decline in MBF during apnea was gradual, and variable in both rate and magnitude. In contrast to values previously documented in seals during forced submersions (FS), CO and SV during rest-associated apneas were maintained at levels characteristic of previously published values in similarly-sized terrestrial mammals at rest. Apneic COs of such magnitude and incomplete muscle ischemia during the apnea suggest that (1) most organs are not ischemic during rest-associated apneas, (2) the blood O(2) depletion rate is greater during rest-associated apneas than during FS, and (3) the blood O(2) store is not completely isolated from muscle during rest-associated apneas.     

Associations of Forest Type,Parasitism and Body Condition of Two European Passerines,Fringilla coelebs and Sylvia atricapilla

Human-induced forest modification can alter parasite-host interactions and might change the persistence of host populations. We captured individuals of two widespread European passerines (Fringilla coelebs and Sylvia atricapilla) in southwestern Germany to disentangle the associations of forest types and parasitism by haemosporidian parasites on the body condition of birds. We compared parasite prevalence and parasite intensity, fluctuating asymmetries, leukocyte numbers, and the heterophil to lymphocyte ratio (H/L-ratio) among individuals from beech, mixed-deciduous and spruce forest stands. Based on the biology of bird species, we expected to find fewer infected individuals in beech or mixed-deciduous than in spruce forest stands. We found the highest parasite prevalence and intensity in beech forests for F. coelebs. Although, we found the highest prevalence in spruce forests for S. atricapilla, the highest intensity was detected in beech forests, partially supporting our hypothesis. Other body condition or health status metrics, such as the heterophil to lymphocyte ratio (H/L-ratio), revealed only slight differences between bird populations inhabiting the three different forest types, with the highest values in spruce for F. coelebs and in mixed-deciduous forests for S. atricapilla. A comparison of parasitized versus non-parasitized individuals suggests that parasite infection increased the immune response of a bird, which was detectable as high H/L-ratio. Higher infections with blood parasites for S. atricapilla in spruce forest indicate that this forest type might be a less suitable habitat than beech and mixed-deciduous forests, whereas beech forests seem to be a suboptimal habitat regarding parasitism for F. coelebs.     

Stochastic analysis of the GAL genetic switch in Saccharomyces cerevisiae: Modeling and experiments reveal hierarchy in glucose repression

Background

Most mathematical models of biochemical pathways consider either signalling events that take place within a single cell in isolation, or an 'average' cell which is considered to be representative of a cell population. Likewise, experimental measurements are often averaged over populations consisting of hundreds of thousands of cells. This approach ignores the fact that even within a genetically-homogeneous population, local conditions may influence cell signalling and result in phenotypic heterogeneity. We have developed a multi-scale computational model that accounts for emergent heterogeneity arising from the influences of intercellular signalling on individual cells within a population. Our approach was to develop an ODE model of juxtacrine EGFR-ligand activation of the MAPK intracellular pathway and to couple this to an agent-based representation of individual cells in an expanding epithelial cell culture population. This multi-scale, multi-paradigm approach has enabled us to simulate Extracellular signal-regulated kinase (Erk) activation in a population of cells and to examine the consequences of interpretation at a single cell or population-based level using virtual assays.

Results

A model consisting of a single pair of interacting agents predicted very different Erk activation (phosphorylation) profiles, depending on the formation rate and stability of intercellular contacts, with the slow formation of stable contacts resulting in low but sustained activation of Erk, and transient contacts resulting in a transient Erk signal. Extension of this model to a population consisting of hundreds to thousands of interacting virtual cells revealed that the activated Erk profile measured across the entire cell population was very different and may appear to contradict individual cell findings, reflecting heterogeneity in population density across the culture. This prediction was supported by immunolabelling of an epithelial cell population grown in vitro, which confirmed heterogeneity of Erk activation.

Conclusion

These results illustrate that mean experimental data obtained from analysing entire cell populations is an oversimplification, and should not be extrapolated to deduce the signal:response paradigm of individual cells. This multi-scale, multi-paradigm approach to biological simulation provides an important conceptual tool in addressing how information may be integrated over multiple scales to predict the behaviour of a biological system.